Abstract
Humankind conditions its response by creating rules by which it must play the game. It does not matter what the game is. In the case of "just war" doctrine, the game is war. The primary concern of this thesis is to determine the applicability of these "rules" to the types of warfare that may be conducted in the 21st century. To achieve this goal, one must first understand the war convention, so referred to by Walzer in his book, entitled "Just and Unjust Wars, a Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations" (3rd edition). The paper then explores the possible nature of war in the 21st century, with emphasis on applying, where possible, the "just war" doctrine. Finally, it touches briefly upon the problems involved in the revision of war doctrine as discovered at the 1992 Peace Symposium.

From the Paper
"Is there just cause to start a war? This question is larger than it appears. From a pacifist point of view, there are no justifiable reasons to start a war. However, there are those who point to a perceived threat as a viable basis for war. This point of view dictates a pre-emptive strike even if there is no immediate action taken by the group making the threats. The rules of the game become clouded in this instance. "The line between legitimate and illegitimate first strikes is not going to be drawn at the point of imminent attack but at the point of sufficient threat (Walzer 76-78)." The time span between the perception of harm and the harm itself is subject to scrutiny. Saddam Hussein may call for a jihad against the United States, but when does that threat constitute a reasonable cause for war? What are the consequences of ignoring the threat? How much time should pass before we take action? Is it possible to wait too long?"

Tags:fanaticism, Saddam, Hussein, bio-war

Abstract
This paper discusses how biological weapons assume a wide range of man-made and natural forms and how they seem to strike an elemental chord in people. It provides an overview of biological weapons, how they are used, and some specific examples of these types of weapons. An assessment of the social ramifications of the use of biological weapons is followed by a summary of the research in the conclusion.

Outline
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Background and Overview
How Biological Weapons Are Used
Examples of Biological Weapons Used
Assessment of Social Ramifications of Biological Warfare
Conclusion

From the Paper
"In 1969, President Richard M. Nixon stated that the United States would not conduct biological warfare against another nation even if that nation used such warfare against the United States. Further, President Nixon ordered that all U.S. stocks of biological weapons be destroyed. In 1972 a treaty (the "Biological Weapons Convention") was signed by more than 70 countries prohibiting the production, stockpiling, or development of biological weapons and requiring destruction of existing stockpiles. Nevertheless, a number of nations, particularly among the developing states, found biological weapons to be an affordable and viable alternative to nuclear arms and began to engage in experiments in the late 20th century."

Tags:hussein, laden, osama, saddam, terrorism, war, warfare, anthrax

Abstract
The paper discusses "Frederick the Great on the Art of War" and relates that Frederick is considered one of the greatest generals ever to have lived. The paper explains that "Frederick the Great on the Art of War" is a compilation of Frederick's musings about war and give insight as to how Frederick formulated his strategy over the course of his most famous and unexpected success, Prussia's triumph during The Seven Years War. The paper reveals that although Frederick was a king, the book gives most attention to his role as a general of war. The paper concludes that the book is an important snapshot of how warfare was viewed at a particular point in human history and portrays the nascent efficiency of the German approach to battle.

From the Paper
"Germany is such a powerful nation-state today, and played such a decisive role in shaping the map of Europe during the 20th century, it is easy to forget that it is a land with a fairly recent birth date. Germany was forged, over the course of the late 18th and early 19th century, as the result of the mighty nature of the Prussian military regime. At the helm of these forces during the conception of Prussia, the region that was to give birth to the men who created the core, military backbone of modern German regime, the Prussian general and leader Frederick the Great stands proud. Frederick is widely considered one of the greatest generals ever to have lived, and his writings on the reasons for his success are compiled in Frederick the Great on the Art of War."

Tags:Prussia, general, leader, The, Seven, Years, War, warfare

Abstract
The paper explores how the Mexican-American War, the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the Dred Scott decision, the Lincoln Douglas Debates and the Freeport Doctrine all influenced the coming of the American Civil War. The paper also discusses the military campaign in the Western theater of the war from January through June of 1862 and provides a brief outline of the generalship of Robert E. Lee and George B. McClellan.

Outline:
The Relationship Between the Mexican-American War and the Coming of the American Civil War
The Relationship Between the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Coming of the American Civil War
The Relationship Between the Dred Scott Decision, the Lincoln Douglas Debates, the Freeport Doctrine, and the Coming of the American Civil War
The Military Campaign in the Western theater of the War from January through June of 1862
Generalship of Robert E. Lee and George B. McClellan

From the Paper
"The Civil War represented one of the most important parts in the history of the United States. It was the essence of the American struggle for democracy as well as for the national identity and unity that would eventually emerge after its end. The premises of the war revolved around the issue of the Texan territory. Thus, the early connections were established "at the invitation of a Mexican government that had just won its independence from Spain. However, by 1830, Mexico was alarmed at the influx of a population alien in language and culture, suspect in political allegiance, and committed to slavery in defiance of Mexico's recent abolition of the institution" (McPherson, 2001) Therefore, what started as a limited relationship came to be seen as a possible threat."

Tags:Mexican-American, War, Kansas-Nebraska, Act, Dred, Scott, Lincoln, Douglas, Debates, Freeport, Doctrine, McClellan, Lee

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss, and analyze the books "The Great War 1914-1918", by Cyril Falls, and "The Pity of War: Explaining World War I", by Niall Ferguson. The paper discusses how these two books, written 40 years apart, look at the war from different stages in history and from different perspectives. The paper analyzes how the authors graphically illustrate the First World War and what this war meant to the participants, the world, and to history in general. The paper examines how the books discuss emotional and personal themes, which makes them quite important for detailed research that adds another dimension to The Great War.

From the Paper
"Ferguson, on the other hand, uses a different type of literary technique. He consistently relates events to works of literature that covered the war, from classics such as All Quiet on the Western Front and For Whom the Bell Tolls to lesser knows works, he consistently compares the actual events of the war to how their authors portrayed (and sometimes dramatized) them in literary works. For some readers, this might be more difficult to follow and identify with and understand. However, both books are extremely well written. They belong in any serious World War I library or historian's reference shelf."

Tags:Francis, Ferdinand, Lloyd, George, World, War, Allies, anti-war, activists

Abstract
In this article, the writer provides a detailed explanation of the impact domestic politics had on the Vietnam war. The writer discusses the anti-war movement and reporting in the press and opponents holding political office in this regard. The writer considers the long term loss of life and regime changes that occurred throughout the region as a result of the US withdrawal. The writer concludes that far more than Kennedy or Johnson, domestic politics dominated Nixon's thinking as he slowly brought an end to the war.

The Anti-War Movement
Negative Influence of Media?
Political Opponents' Influence
The Vietnam War and President Nixon

From the Paper
"The Kennedy administration decided in 1961 not to assist the Laotian government through military intervention though President Eisenhower had advised him that Laos, and not Vietnam, was the hotspot in Southeast Asia. Kennedy backed a diplomatic settlement that brought to power a neutral regime. For a candidate who had cast a hard line during the campaign against the communists, this seemed like a pretty soft touch.
"Then, in April 1961, Kennedy approved and was humiliated by one of the most disastrous military defeats in American history--the failed attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro in the Bay of Pigs invasion. Several months after that, he was bullied by the Soviet premier, Nikita Khrushchev at their Vienna, Austria summit meeting."

Tags:Kennedy, policies, Nixon, anti-war, President, support

Abstract
This paper describes the war that existed in the Philippines after the Spain's defeat at the hands of the United States during the Spanish-American War. As a direct result of the war, the Philippines were given to the United States and the Filipino people who originally believed that they were fighting a war for freedom and independence against the Spanish begin to turn against American troops who they view as simply another occupying force. The first part of the paper gives a background to the Filipino insurgency and its main leader, General Emilio Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo's tactics of fighting a guerrilla war against American troops is examined, as well as the effectiveness of these attacks on shocking the American public back home. Feeling betrayed by America who promised the Filipino people freedom after the Spanish were defeated, Aguinaldo embarked on a series of deadly attacks on American soldiers in the Philippines. As a result, American troops responded with equal brutality in their reprisals with very little organized military command holding them back. Diaries are heavily cited in this section of the paper, giving primary sources that tell of how desperate the American soldiers were at the time and how they needed to racially dehumanize the enemy in order to commit such vicious acts of reprisal. The second part of the paper deals with how the American press responded to the war. Numerous newspaper articles and other criticisms of the war are given as examples, some written by the early 20th century's most prominent figures such as Mark Twain. The general point of this section is to show how deeply divided the American public was over the war in the Philippines and how many felt that it would lead to American involvement in other world affairs. A direct parallel is also drawn to the Iraq War in modernity. Finally, the paper ends with a detailed account of how individual soldiers from both sides viewed the conflict. The Filipinos clearly viewed the insurgency as a necessary action in order to preserve their promised independence, while many American soldiers were disgusted and frustrated with why they were in the country to begin with, and often responded violently towards the natives since they began to view them as subhuman. The psychology of warfare is briefly discussed, as soldiers often dehumanize the enemy as a means of justification of their own violent behavior. The end of the insurgency is also discussed, with American troops brutally putting down the rebellion and establishing a tight control over the entire area for decades.

From the Paper
"On April 11th, 1898, the President of the United States William McKinley went to Congress and asked the elected body to declare war on Spain for their role in oppression overseas and to accommodate public opinion that was strongly anti-Spanish due to the sinking of the United States battleship Maine only a few months earlier that was blamed on Spanish agents. Congress eventually sanctioned the war, and the Spanish-American war commenced with several battles over Spanish colonies such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. The war itself was over fairly quickly, as hostilities were ended only a few months after war was officially declared. The involvement in the former Spanish colonies clearly demonstrated that America had shifted to a strong imperialistic attitude when it came to the Western Hemisphere and indeed the world in general, and would be forced to endure all of the benefits and tribulations that came from being an imperialistic power."

Tags:aguinaldo, american, emilio, filipino, history, philippines, spanish, war, wars

Abstract
This paper analyses how anthrax is a powerful biological weapon, which when used appropriately, may result in the death of thousands or even millions of people. It examines how, in order to maximise the efficiency of a response to a bio-terrorist attack involving anthrax, wider knowledge of the microbiology and spore formation of anthrax is needed, as well as effective biological counter measures to ensure the safety of civilian populations.
Outline
Introduction Releasing Anthrax
Epidemiology Symptoms
Microbiology
Pathology Methods of Control
Recommendations
Conclusion Bibliography Appendix

From the Paper
"Releasing anthrax would be relative simple, a cloud of anthrax spores released in a strategic location, with a high civilian population, could kill thousands or even millions of people if released according. A lethal dosage of anthrax is considered to be 10,000 spores; 80% of a population that inhaled such a dose would die. Less than one millionth of a gram is invariably fatal within a couple of days after exposure. (REF) An anthrax aerosol would be odourless and invisible following release and would have the potential to travel many kilometres."

Tags:agent, chemical, iraq, pathogen, terrorism, terrorist, war

Abstract
This paper first relates, that, in addition to suffering from having few natural resources, being hampered by a history of colonialism and being located in an earthquake and volcanic zone, El Salvador also has failed to correct its continuing environmental problems. The paper then proceeds to review the country's environmental problems of devastating deforestation, soil erosion and infertility, water pollution, contamination from toxic wastes and the loss of bio-diversity. The paper suggests ways that El Salvador can correct its environmental problems so that it can prosper.

From the Paper
"In addition, soil erosion and infertility are quite prevalent in El Salvador. These problems stem mostly from poor agricultural practices. Farmers typically use a "slash and burn" farming method, which consists of cutting and burning down forests in order to use the areas for agriculture. This method destroys all vegetation and leaves the surrounding soil vulnerable to extreme erosion. Unfortunately, since it is becoming more and more difficult to find land that is suitable for cultivation, farmers have no choice but to do this. Farming is their livelihood and quite frankly they will do anything to survive."

Tags:farming, timber exploitation, overcrowding, civil war, international grant and loan programs

Abstract
This paper begins by giving a brief bio of Amis and then describes how he became famous as a novelist through the creation of a humorous but highly critical look at British society, especially in the period following the end of World War II in 1945. It discusses his book "Lucky Jim" in terms of how it fits in with this theme of criticizing society.

From the Paper
"Kingsley Amis's 1953 novel Lucky Jim is a book meant to make us laugh at the absurdities of many of the people that we make while at the same time assuring us that there the small and downtrodden can come out ahead. In this novel, he tells a tale that we all want to hear, which is that sometimes the good guys win just because they are the good guys."

Tags:english, university, professor, dixon