From the Paper
"CALIFORNIA POLITICAL SYSTEM
This research paper discusss the essential and unique features of the California political system, including an analysis of its constitution and the working of some of its basic institutions, as illustrated by some contemporary problems.

California Constitution
The California constitution is the result of two constitutional conventions, one in Monterey in 1849 called just before the state was admitted to the Union, a second in 1879 and, as of 1992, a total of 445 amendments approved by the voters out of the 685 proposed by the legislature and another 35 amendments resulting from 115 initiatives on the popular ballot. The Constitution is a cumbersome document, containing over 34,000 words, much longer than the U.S. Constitution. The Constitution.."

Abstract
Japan has a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government as its form of government. The executive branch of this government consists of the chief of state, but the head of government is the Prime Minister, a position held by Junichiro Koizumi since April 2001. Below him is a Cabinet he has appointed. The legislative branch is bicameral, with the Diet or Kokkai consisting of the House of Councillors or Sangi-in with 242 seats, members being elected for six-year terms; and with the House of Representatives or Shugi-in made up of 480 seats and with members elected for four-year terms.

From the Paper
Introduction Japan has a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government as its form of government. The executive branch of this government consists of the chief of state, but the head of government is the Prime Minister, a position held by Junichiro Koizumi since April 2001. Below him is a Cabinet he has appointed. The legislative branch is bicameral, with the Diet or Kokkai consisting of the House of Councillors or Sangi-in with 242 seats, members being elected for six-year terms; and with the House of Representatives or Shugi-in made up of 480 seats and with members elected for four-year terms. Members are fronted by political parties, consisting

Tags:japan, market, jelly

Abstract
This paper analyzes the attempts at unifying the approaches to centralized versus uncentralized government in the US following independence. Various outlooks toward centralized government that existed at the time are discussed, especially in light of their impact on the Constitution. In particular, the paper examines the Articles of Confederation, the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan. The paper concludes by showing how the compromise that led to a bicameral congress dramatically improved the economy of the young nation, people's lives and the nation in general.

From the Paper
"In 1776, at the Second Continental Congress, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia proposed an idea that established a committee of thirteen members, each of whom came from each of the colonies. The committee was officially established on July 12 and was responsible for making a plan for the infant Confederation (Blohm 1). John Dickinson was the head of the group and drafted the committee's document, known as "The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union", in which he suggested a strong central government. As expected, a huge debate began. At this time, many had a strong-central-government-phobia; overall, that was exactly the type of government they just got rid of."

Tags:history, united states, constitution, articles of Confederation, axiom, convention

Abstract
This paper examines Catherine Bowen's 1966 book "Miracle at Philadelphia", a well received text that looks at the 1787 American constitutional convention. Among other things, it examines in brief the factors that allowed for the constitutional establishment of a single executive as well as the establishment of a bicameral legislative system. It also looks at what the founding fathers meant by federalism and why they chose a republican form of government over a more purely democratic one.

From the Paper
"The following paper will review Catherine Bowen's Miracle at Philadelphia. In particular, the paper will why the founding fathers created the constitution, the manner in which they did so and how they saw the people of the United States. In examining all of the above, the paper will review why America has a federal system and how our early leaders defined federalism; what function was/is served by the bi-cameral legislative system or single executive authority; what design lay behind creating a government with legislative, executive and judicial branches; why it is that America is a republic and not a democracy; why American leaders had cause to fear the original constitutional document; and, lastly, what the American constitution says about the nature of government and about the nature of human beings. "

Tags:miracle, philadelphia, bowen

Abstract
This paper explains that the structure of Japanese government and politics has much affinity with the United States and the United Kingdom, having three main bodies and a bicameral legislature; however, Japan also continues to retain symbolic ties to its past with its continued institution of the Emperor as a figurehead. The author points out that, unlike many of its nearby neighbors, the citizens of Japan are guaranteed by their constitution to regular, free, and fair elections; the age of suffrage is 20 years old and is extended universally to all Japanese citizens. The paper relates that much of political power in the Japanese government lies with the Shugu-in or House of Representatives because, although the Sangri-in can delay the passage of a bill or treaty that has been approved by its lower counterpart, the Sangri-in has no say in the election of the powerful Prime Minister, and the Sangri-in is subject to being overruled by the Shugu-in in several decision-making cases.

Table of Contents
Structure
Elections
Laws and Policy

From the Paper
"Similar to the United States, the government of Japan is divided into three main branches -- the Executive, Legislative and Judicial branches. The Executive branch is charged with the administrative affairs of the country. Since 1989, Emperor Akihito has served as the nominal chief of state. Under Japanese law, Akihito could still perform state functions such as promulgating amendments to the Japanese constitution, proclaiming the results of general elections, receiving foreign ambassadors and awarding government honors. As emperor, Akihito could even dissolve the House of Representatives and dismiss ministers. However, the emperor could only perform these duties with the approval of his Cabinet."

Tags:structure, elections, emperor, shugu-in, Sangri-in

Abstract
This paper examines why it is so difficult for the president of the United States to pass his domestic policy through Congress. It attempts to show that the composition and bicameralism of Congress, the strong formation of political parties and partisan effects and the prominent wars that have plagued the country all contribute to this difficulty.

From the Paper
"When the original 13 colonies declared independence from Great Britain in 1776, it served as an unyielding announcement to the world that they were no longer going to abide by British rule and gave birth to a new and vastly nontraditional form of government. At the time most governmental structures were monarchial based and centralized on strong governmental powers. The framers of the Constitution created a system of checks and balances that would bring to an end to tyranny and fashioned three branches of government, each with its own "mechanisms by which the actions of any single branch could be blocked by either or both of the other branches" (Greenberg and Page 42). Congress, known as the legislative branch, and the president, or executive branch, were given the task of working together to form the laws and policies of the country. As was intended by the framers, it is difficult for these two bodies of government to pass domestics policy agendas due to the pure make up of Congress, the United States as a divided government, times of war, and the system of checks and balances."

Tags:balances, bicameral, checks, consitution, divided, government, legislation, system, war

Abstract
This paper first explains that most Western parliamentary democracies practice a unitary form of government, where the regional units are merely extensions of the central government and have no autonomy in decision-making; whereas, the U.S. is a federal system where the individual state governments derive their powers from the central government overseeing the implementation of law at the national level. Next, the author investigates the different role of the political party in parliamentary democracies as compared to the presidential power in the U.S. The paper concludes that emerging trends toward regionalism are developing in some countries with citizens using the power of the referendum to achieve these means.

From the Paper
"In the United States, the executive is the president and is chosen by the voters who votes go towards selecting delegates to serve in the electoral college, which determines how many electoral votes will go to the winning presidential candidate and the final outcome is determined by how many electoral votes in all 50 states the candidate receives. Once elected to office, the President will then form a cabinet of his own without approval by leaders of his party. However, the Presidential appointees must be voted on by the Senate."

Tags:branches, political parties, bicameral no-confidence, constitutional review

Abstract
This paper explains that Pakistan's turbulent history over the past fifty years, its geographical proximity to hostile India and the tensions generated by rival Islamic and Western influences have led to frequent changes in its constitution and to a general suppression of citizens' rights. The author points out that Pakistan's economy, throughout much of its relatively brief history, has been hampered by underdevelopment and chronic poverty in parts of Pakistan, as well as by fiscal mismanagement. The paper concludes that Pakistan's outlook over the next three to five years is uncertain and potentially grim because of the political and religious sectarian instability in southwest Asia: The entire region is a powder keg.

Table of Contents:
Prologue
Introduction
Country Essentials
Leadership Profiles
System of Government
Key Issues
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Ultimately, classical Islamic thoughts can contribute to the development of modern democratic institutions in Islamic countries, for the theoretical foundations of democratic systems of justice were advocated by the Prophet Muhammad and have been developed by Muslim philosophers and jurists for centuries. But because democracy is equated with the West, non-Western values and practices must shape the conceptualization and utilization of democracy in Pakistan."

Tags:muslim, musharraf, bhutto, bicameral, agriculture

Abstract
This paper explains why the U.K. has a House of Lords, how it has developed and whether people and politicians see it as relevant today. The paper also looks at the proposals of each of the parties concerning the House of Lords as outlined in the party's manifestos. The paper concludes that the ultimate answer to the need for further reform can be found within the definitions of 'democracy' as 'rule by the people'. However, reform to this degree seems impossible at this time; therefore, the author recommends a 50:50 split of elected members and non elected members as the best solution.

From the Paper
'In to the 20th century more reforms were to come, and from the late 19th Century were in great demand as the democratic principle was more widely accepted. Unsurprisingly the Conservative dominated House fought hard to contest reform obstructing Liberal bills, a political scrap that led to the Parliament Bill. Past in 1911 the Parliament Bill included a vision of an elected House of Lords, but unfortunately the vision was never realized. It took 58 years before it looked like change would come again. The Labour Government, led by Harold Wilson in 1969 introduced the Parliament (No. 2) Bill seeking to phase out the hereditary peers."

Tags:proposals, bicameral legislature, life peerages, appointment, keeping check

Abstract
This paper discusses the different institutions of Canada's Westminster Model of Government and how these institutions interact. The strengths and weaknesses of each institution, and the Westminster model as a whole, are discussed. The author also compares the Westminster model as it is used in the UK, to the model that has been adopted in Canada.

There is a bibliography, but no footnotes, or endnotes.

From the Paper
"The institutions of Canada's Westminster include a dual executive, consisting of the Prime Minister and his/her Cabinet. The legislature is comprised of two houses, the upper house being the appointed senate, and the lower house being the elected House of Commons. Canada's Westminster uses a Single Member Plurality electoral system, in which each constituency receives one seat in the House of Commons, and victory is achieved by a one vote lead. Canada's Judiciary is made up of a series of courts, with the Supreme Court reigning as the highest in the land."

Tags:bicameralism, canada, democracy, government, parliament, uk, westminster, executive, legislature, electorial, judiciary, houses, senate, commons, charter, canada, federalism, confidence, rules