From the Paper
" The purpose of this paper is to discuss each of the eight lifespan development periods (prenatal, infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood) as cited by Laura E. Berk. The discussion reviews the basic facts, concepts, and developmental issues salient for each period.

Prenatal Period-Conception to Birth
This is the period during which a one-cell organism grows into a human baby. Eisenberg, Murkoff and Hathawy (1991) provide an extensive discussion of this period, pointing out that development proceeds according to genetic instruction. Gestation, the term commonly used to refer to all of the development occurring before birth, is said to occur in three.."

Abstract
The paper discusses how the concept of nature versus nurture has been debated for decades. The paper explains that many theorists, such as Piaget, began their ideas formulated around the belief that nature would determine how the individual would develop and what his or her attitudes about life would eventually be (Berk, 2001, p. 45). Yet, the paper explains how the work of such theorists as B.F. Skinner, who demonstrated with the use of dogs that beings could be manipulated to act in certain ways if given the right stimulus, began a new course of thought geared toward the belief that nurturing a human being would have a more profound impact on development (Berk, 2001, p. 46). the paper discusses how as time has progressed the work of other professionals, including Vygotsky, demonstrated that the nurture affect on people had a stronger influence on developmental outcomes, which has been shown in research with the completion of twin studies and educational research (Berk, 2001, p. 21). Therefore, it is theorized that only not does nuturing have a more significant impact on development, but that it has a greater affect on the attitudes that the person has over time.

Tags:edu, nature, nurture

Abstract
The paper discusses how Vygotsky believed that biology had an impact on childhood development to a certain degree, but that environment was the core of learning for every child (Berk, 2001, p. 254). The paper explains that according to Vygotsky, the child began learning by watching the adults around him or her and then making a decision about how he or she could behave based on the roles that were witnessed. The paper argues that it was not only these roles, but it was the language that the child heard and saw expressed that had a profound impact on both the development of the child and the identity that would ultimately be demonstrated (Berk, 2001, p. 254).

Tags:english, edu, esl

Abstract
The paper discusses how Berk maintains that in the 1970s there was a significant amount of discussion by theorists, educators and the government about the physical, cognitive and social development of children of impoverished families and cultural groups (326). The paper explains that this was because of the work of some theorists that suggested that children of disadvantaged backgrounds and those of a specific cultural heritage could not function at high levels of thought, performance or social interaction because they were genetically incapable of doing so (Berk 326). The paper discusses how this perception of ability in children of impoverished backgrounds or cultural groups, however, has not been accepted because it is known that children will develop based on their interactions with their environment and how they are taught to function within that environment. A child's interactions with the environment will affect all aspects of development, including cognitive, physical and social growth. Therefore, the socioeconomic status of a child impacts development after a child's birth through his or her ability to be cared for, his or her perceptions of how he or she fits into society and his or her ideas regarding what can be accomplished throughout life. The paper shows how this position is expressed in the work of both Erikson and Piaget.

Tags:socioeconomic, levels, development

Abstract
The paper discusses how in education, the concepts of Vygotsky are consistently considered because of how they impact the growth and development of youth. The paper explains that Vygotsky's social learning theory suggests that the environment is the key factor in how children will ultimately develop over the course of time because of the multiple factors within the environment that play a significant role in cognition and behavior (Berk 2001, p. 21). The paper further explains that Vygotsky believed that every element of the environment had a means of influencing development, including the people, the incidents that occurred and the landscape of the person's world. The paper discusses how this belief has been applied to nursing, that the nurse must focus on the environment of the patient, and it is this factor that is demonstrated throughout the exploration of nursing theories as the primary connecting element of nursing theory today.

Tags:nursing, theory, edu

Abstract
This paper discusses fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), a combination of birth defects that is associated with consuming alcohol during pregnancy and which is the leading cause of mental retardation and birth defects. It provides a look at FAS, using four reliable sources as a basis of analysis. The sources used are Streissguth, Jacobson and Jacobson, the National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities (NCBDDD), and the National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (NOFAS). The information obtained from these sources is compared with the textbook, "Infants and Children Prenatal Through Middle Childhood", by Laura Berk.

From the Paper
"The terms FAS, fetal alcohol effects (FAE), possible fetal alcohol effects (PFAE), and alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND) are not interchangeable. Notes Streissguth, "Children who have only some of the characteristics of FAS (i.e., not enough for a full diagnosis) are often said to have fetal alcohol effects (FAE) or possible fetal alcohol effects (PFAE)" (p. 5). The terms FAE and PFAE have no distinct distinguishing criteria that make them a separate diagnosis, although they can be as destructive as FAS on the patient. The Institute of Medicine introduced the term alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND) in the mid-1980s, a term that centered in on the CNS characteristics of the disease, rather than growth deficiencies and facial characteristics."

Tags:neurodevelopmental, disorder, congenital, pregnancy

Abstract
The paper looks at three books which reflect alternative and progressive models of education that defy conventional expectations of a school. "Dewey?s Laboratory School: Lessons for Today", by Laurel N. Tanner presents key practices of Dewey?s laboratory school as vital lessons for educators today. "I Learn from Children", by Caroline Pratt, provides an insider?s perspective of the creation of an experimental school that mirrored many of the principles advocated by Dewey. "Scaffolding Children?s Learning: Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education" by Laura E. Berk and Adam Winsler discusses Vygotsky?s sociocultural perspective on education which states that the way human beings think is shaped by social experience. The paper shows that these three books share a common vision in creating an ideal learning environment for children. It shows, too, that unlike the traditional classroom, where the teacher teaches a pre-determined curriculum to a group of passive students, the classrooms depicted in these books are dynamic entities.

From the Paper
"Tanner offers a powerful and convincing presentation of Dewey's principles of education. According to Tanner, educators today should emulate many of the characteristics of Dewey's school. According to Dewey, schools should recreate a "cooperative society on a small scale" in order to produce adults who are able to cooperate and work together in larger society (Tanner, 1997, p. 2). Pratt also shares Dewey's vision of a school mirroring the real world on a "children's scale" to prepare children for the real world. By attempting to reproduce this world, the children will have to understand the functioning of the various components and learn to interact with one another (Pratt, 1970, p. 26). The everyday life on the streets constituted a vital resource of learning for the young children and the teachers (Pratt, 1970, p. 31). When the eight-year-olds took over the responsibility of running the school store, they not only learned about the intricacies of the organization, but also the store's historical and the geographical dimensions (Pratt, 1970, pp. 108-109)."

Tags:cooperative, society, proximal, development, ZPD

Abstract
The romantic relationships we engage in may well be a product of early experiences with primary caregivers according to modern attachment theorists (Hazan & Shaver, 1987 and Fraley & Shaver, 1998). Based upon an ethological viewpoint, attachment theory promotes survival and safety of the species. This biological need for safety and protection motivates the infant to attach itself to the primary caregiver through attention seeking behavior. Over time these behavior forms a true emotional bond between the caregiver and the infant which is believed to influence further relationships along the lifespan into adulthood (Berk, 2000). The laboratory based assumption that adult attachment styles evolve from childhood experiences is challenged within this paper and methodological limitations visited within contemporary studies. Difficulties within naturalistic observation is also addressed and cross-cultural validity examined.

From the Paper
"Attachment theory began in 1969 with a student of the psychoanalytic discipline, John Bowlby (Berk, 2000). He hypothesized that emotional development stemmed from early childhood bonds formed between the primary caregiver and the infant. From an evolutionary perspective attachment is a human survival mechanism; innately built into infants? genotype to provide protection and safety. Subsequent to birth infants perform behaviours that initiate the first stage of attachment (eg. crying, smiling or making eye contact), these behaviours are innate biological mechanisms that aim to keep the primary caregiver in close proximity. Reinforcement is then given by the caregiver in response to these behaviours initiating the most important reinforcement schedule of the child's life (Lyddon & Sherry, 2001)."

Tags:adulthood, lover

Abstract
The paper discusses how Adelson, a medical anthropologist, spent 18 months in Whapmagoostui, a small Cree community situated at the mouth of the Great Whale River. The paper relates that during the early 1990s, the traditional hunting and fishing lifestyle of that community was threatened when Hydro Quebec planned a large hydroelectric project for the area. The paper looks at how Adelson returned to the community each year since 1988 to study the health patterns and the health philosophy. The paper describes how Adelson used a holistic approach to health and maintains that health is a complex and dynamic process. The paper relates that Ohmagaril and Berkes (1997) also studied the Cree in other communities, and their primary focus was harvesting, but their study reveals important implications abou the concept of being alive and well.

From the Paper
"Adelson, a medical anthropologist, spent 18 months in Whapmagoostui, a small Cree community situated at the mouth of the Great Whale River. During the early 1990s, the traditional hunting and fishing lifestyle of that community was threatened when Hydro Quebec planned a large hydroelectric project for the area. Adelson returned to the community each year since 1988 to study the health patterns and the health philosophy. She used a holistic approach to health and maintains that health is a complex and dynamic process. Ohmagaril and Berkes (1997) also studied the Cree in other communities. They primary focus was harvesting, but their..."

Tags:cree, health, wellness

Abstract
This paper provides an overview of the discussions presented in three different articles regarding gastric bypass surgery. The articles summarized are "Medical Management of Obesity" by Ethan Berke, "Hope for the Morbidly Obese" by Michelle Bock-Lopez, and "Mechanisms to Stop the Epidemic of Obesity: Surgical Therapy for Obesity" by Harvey Sugarman. These articles include discussions on the benefits and risks of the surgery and demonstrate both the growing population and success of this surgery. The articles also review information regarding concerns about both the safety and efficacy of the approach. Two of the articles reviewed by this paper are appended.

From the Paper
"Multiple reports that more and more adults and even children have become morbidly obese in the United States have led to searches for effective interventions. One of the interventions beginning to receive widespread use is gastric bypass surgery, which limits the amount of food an individual can consume and thus helps prevent overeating that leads to or supports a state of obesity."

Tags:blood, pressure, diabetes, diet, exercise, weight, loss, food, absorption, small, intestine, nutrition, invasive