Abstract
As the American population continues to become more diverse racially, members of visible minority groups within the population become more prominent. Simultaneously, with the increase in diversity, income distribution in the American economy has become more distorted. While economic growth in the United States has surged over the past decade, the income gap has widened; not only between the richest and poorest Americans, but also between moderate-income and low-income Americans. Members of visible minorities in the population tend to be represented disproportionately in the low-income and poverty classifications in the United States. While there is an abundance of implications of this state of affairs, one of the more crucial ones is access to health care. Individual and household financial capacity, the scarcity of employer-paid health insurance among small businesses, cultural differences based in social psychology and other factors frequently act as impediments to health care access for low-income individuals and households among visible minority population groups in the contemporary United States. This problem and these issues are investigated in this study. The study identifies causal factors for the gap in health care access between lower-income Americans and members of visible minorities in the United States, on the one hand, and more affluent Americans and members of the majority segment of the population, on the other hand. The initial chapter of this study delineates the problem investigated. Specific research questions are formulated and stated to provide greater focus for the investigation.
Social psychological theory and applied social psychology literature are reviewed in the second chapter. Literature relevant to the functioning of low-income and visible minority population groups in the United States within a social psychological context are reviewed in the third chapter. The fourth chapter is devoted to a review of literature relevant to both the health care system in the United States and the experiences of low-income and visible minority population groups in relation to health care access and health care delivery in the United States. An assessment of the problem investigated, performed within the structure of the research questions, is presented in the final (fifth) chapter. Conclusions drawn from the study findings are stated and recommendations for further research are made. The summary conclusions reached through the conduct of this study relate both to health care access and health care utilization by low-income persons and members of visible minorities. With respect to health care access, the summary conclusion reached is that a universal system of health care entitlement is required in the United States. In relation to health care utilization by low-income persons and members of visible minorities, the summary conclusion reached is that extensive education is required for both low-income persons and members of visible minorities, on the one hand, and health care providers, on the other hand. Low-income persons and members of visible minorities require education on the benefits and function of health care services, while health care providers require education in the social mores of the diverse populations they must serve.

Table of Contents:

Introduction
Problem Delineation
Background on the Problem
Statement of the Problem
Research Questions
Review of Relevant Social Psychology Theory and Literature
Introduction
Sociological Theory and Health Care
The Welfare State
Accessing Contemporary Health Care
Role of Ethics in Accessing Health Care
Alternative Health Care Delivery Systems
Chapter Conclusions
Social Functioning of Low-Income and Visible Minority Population Groups
Introduction
HIV/AIDS Related Behavior
Initiatives to Improve Health Care
Access and Behaviors
The American Health Care System and the Experiences of Low-Income and Visible Minority Groups
Introduction
The American Health Care System
Analysis of Health Care Delivery Systems
Care Quality
Alternative Approaches to Health Care
Bio-ethical Issues
Problems of Accessibility
Initiatives to Improve Minority Access
Chapter Conclusions
Assessment of the Problem Discussion, Recommendations for Further Research
Appendices
Annotated Bibliography

From the Paper
"Social Cognitive Theory [self-efficacy] emphasizes the role of expectancies, self-efficacy, peer normative influences, and social competency skills as key components affecting adolescents' behaviors (DiClemente, Lodico, Grinstead, Harper, Rickman, Evans, & Coates, 1996). The applicability of models based on social psychological principles for understanding African-Americans' decision-making and sexual behavior has been questioned because most such models tend to be individually-focused and do not take into account the social context in which the behavior is embedded (Cochran & Mays, 1993). Social cognitive theory, however, explicitly integrates behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors as reciprocally interactive. Thus, given the hypothesized multi-factorial nature of sexual decision making and the potential impact of the high-risk social environment of the study population, approaches based on social cognitive theory are thought to be particularly relevant for understanding the myriad factors that may affect African-Americans' sexual behavior."

Tags:Simmelian, Four, Quadrants, HIV/AIDS, TRA

Abstract
This work is a demonstrated application of a selected health promotion/disease strategy. Included is a description of the population group; the desired intervention, strategy and rationale. The goal of this grant proposal is to obtain a treatment facility for alcoholics in low-income areas. The researcher explains that low-income neighborhoods are subject to experiential difficulties associated with alcohol use and abuse by members of the community and that is why it is the chosen area for this improvement strategy. The writer concludes that a treatment facility in this area is a vital element in a poor community where many have not had many benefits, such as education.

Contents:
Objective
Introduction
Strategies of Marketing to the Community
Demographical Data in the Area of the Proposed Community Alcohol Treatment Center
Intervention
Rationale
The Outlook Relating to Future Funding Provisions
Treatment Program Community Marketing Process
Medicaid EPSDT and AOD Treatment Services Policy Brief
Screening Process: A Behavioral Healthcare Issue
Summary & Conclusion

From the Paper
"Stated within the report is the fact: "Alcoholism and its negative social, economic, and medical consequences increasingly pose major problems in the American society and important challenges in doctor offices, especially in rural settings where there are few available resources. It is the objective of this study to attempt to assess the needs for, the access to, and the barriers against alcoholism treatment in Grant County, Oregon.". In the report of the design of the study stated is: " the design of the study includes multiple facets of researching work on available literature and published reports, reviewing medical records in medical facilities, meeting with personnel involved in alcoholism treatment programs, and attending Alcoholics Anonymous meeting, all of which focus on the population of Grant County, Oregon."

Tags:alcohol, healthcare

Abstract
This paper focuses on the increase of women in the workplace, and the resulting effects on women's stress levels and overall health, and the well-being of families. The paper explains that, over the second half of the twentieth century the United States experienced a shift in traditional roles for women, as they moved from a majority of home-makers to a majority of wage earners. Although there are benefits that have been realized with the added income, there are also negative physical and mental side effects that have resulted from this shift as well. One of the most damaging of these negative side effects is the stress that comes with the responsibility of preparing for and maintaining a job or career. In addition to the stress itself, conditions related to the stress are also a major concern in the shift from home to work force, specifically stress related weight gain. This paper presents statistical information on the trend toward women in the work force and shows how the stresses of employment and career preparation, combined with the biological wiring of women, is manifesting itself in the form of unprecedented weight gain in the population of the United States, especially among women.

From the Paper
"This alone is not earth shattering news, as we are all aware of this trend, but the chain reaction that this started and the damaging effects of it are just starting to be realized and understood. Due to the imbalance between the two environments compromises had to be made. As more hours were being dedicated to work, this meant that fewer hours were left for care giving, which resulted in a shortage of this necessary resource (Stebbins, 2001, p. 40). In 1990 the National Child Care Study was released and indicated a shortage of infant and child care in the United States, and further showed that more than 3.5 million school-age children were spending time after school unsupervised. To make matters worse, we are also entering a period where, due to the baby boomer generation, the percentage of elderly persons that also require care is increasing dramatically as well. In fact, it was estimated that in 1995 almost 1 in 4 households were providing care for persons over the age of 50 (Stebbins, 2001, pp. 105-107). Not only did the situation created by this shift fit the definition of stress, but the employment created a source of stress in itself."

Tags:labor, obesity, weight, gain

Abstract
In order to understand just how nursing is going to change over the next few decades in regards to assessment and the quality of care a patient receives it is necessary to examine the changes Evidence based medicine has brought to the profession. Particular groups of people are going to benefit more from the changes in health assessment. But what is to come of those people in the middle-people you are aging and have a little of savings and income, but not enough for private care and too much for State funded care? Where does this leave nurses? It is evident that the increase in people over 65 years of age is going to put stress on the nursing profession, which is already under staffed. What is not evident is how nurses are going to reach the elderly who have become isolated. To truly understand how health assessment/physical assessment impacts nursing care the needs of the elderly must be understand.

From the Paper
How Health Assessment/Physical Assessment Impacts Nursing Care In order to understand just how nursing is going to change over the next few decades in regards to assessment and the quality of care a patient receives it is necessary to examine the changes Evidence based medicine has brought to the profession. Particular groups of people are going to benefit more from the changes in health assessment. But what is to come of those people in the middle--people you are aging and have a little of savings and income, but not enough for private care and too much for state-funded care? Where does this leave nurses? It is evident that the increase in people over 65 years of age is going to put stress on the

Tags:change, elderly, assessment

Abstract
The paper looks at Barabara Ehrenreich's book "Nickel and Dimed" that portrays the experience of American workers who receive the minimum hourly wage and minimal benefits. The paper describes how Ehrenreich undergoes an experiment being a low-wage worker at three different chain stores including Wal-Mart. The paper relates how Wal-Mart attempts to influence the employees' opinions against unions and shows how these big corporations are in the position of power. The paper asserts that if the national chains will be forced to fully compensate employees for their hard work and improve their job conditions, then income, health and living conditions will enhance as well.

From the Paper
"We live in a market oriented system which is determined by the demand of the consumers and the supply of the providers of goods and services. Barabara Ehrenreich's book Nickel and Dimed is about the working poor who have to make a living under the minimum wage or slightly above it. In addition, many of them suffer under horrible working conditions, because the more national chain stores-- the suppliers-- open their doors in the United States, the higher is the competition among those suppliers and the higher the pressure to make profit. The vendors do not only have to lower their prices in order to attract customers to their stores, but also need to lower wages to minimize their costs, maximize their revenue and stay alive on the market. It is the ordinary worker who suffers, who gets his wages cut to the legal minimum and benefits minimized. But it is not only money that is taken away from the workers; also their rights diminish as with rising unemployment the rising demand of low-wage jobs gives the national chains the opportunity to be able to choose from many workers who have to accept their working conditions and rules defined in the contracts."

Tags:poverty, income, wage, union, health, insurance

Abstract
The writer outlines the failings of the current health insurance industry in the United States and explains how he/she believes the private sector can provide affordable care to millions of Americans in a way that a universal health care system cannot. The writer highlights how even middle-income persons are being over-burdened by rising benefits and insurance outlays. The writer sincerely believes that with his/her business administration background and entrepreneurial spirit, he/she can successfully provide millions of Americans with a more secure existence.

From the Paper
"I intend to utilize my degree by owning an insurance company in large measure because I have seen first-hand just how many Americans do not have insurance when having this sort of protection can spare them misery and enormous loss. The most obvious area wherein possessing insurance can benefit Americans is in the realm of health care where nearly 40 million Americans (as of the turn of this decade) had no insurance covering them for costly medical procedures - and this figure is expected to rise substantially as the economy gradually "cools down" (Fronstin, 1-10). I am very much interested in this sort of insurance and I have spent a considerable amount of time in recent years studying the private health insurance sector with an eye towards ascertaining who offers the best "deals", who dispenses this kind of insurance in the most cost-effective manner, and who arranges the best service-provider network(s)."

Tags:medical, procedures, service-provider, wages, benefits, physician, hospital

Abstract
The paper focuses on the working class in Britain during the period 1815-1865 and argues that although an increase in such quantitative measures such as real wages and real incomes occurred throughout this period, the distribution of this wealth and economic growth is less clearly defined and the damaging effects of short term trade cycles and unemployment negated the majority of these gains. The paper examines recent research that shows how the health threatening effects of the unsanitary conditions created in the overcrowded, mushrooming, urbanized cities overwhelmed any benefits to be derived by the working classes from higher wages and incomes. The paper reaches the conclusion that people were better off in 1865 than they were in 1815 but only if they were lucky enough to survive the period 1820 to 1850.

From the Paper
"In answer to the question 'were people better off in 1865 than they were in 1815' then arguably they were. The British working classes were earning more, consuming more, eating more nutritional diets, living longer, dying less, and working shorter hours. Sophisticated methods of historical economic research have 'seemingly' proved what Clapham and succeeding optimists argued all along. However, with the introduction into the debate of anthropometric history a new, and arguably more interesting question arises with regards to the price paid by the working class for progress, and is one, which gives greater credence to contemporary sources of the time. Why, if real wages and real incomes were rising and, prices were falling, did the population's height decline?"

Tags:wages, incomes, urbanization, industrialization, sanitation, health, overcrowding

Abstract
The aim of this study is to assess the level of consumer satisfaction among a cohort of Russian immigrants that receive in-home supportive services. The writer explains that In-Home Supportive Services is a publicly funded program in California that provides personal assistance services to low-income persons suffering from chronic and/or disabling conditions that would otherwise prevent them from remaining safely in their homes. The writer notes that due to political and economic hardships in the former Soviet Union, many immigrants left in order to find better opportunities in the United States. This has resulted in the Russian immigrant population experiencing more rapid growth than any other population in the San Francisco Bay area. The proposed study will assess the perception of the quality of care that Russian immigrants receive from In-Home Supportive Services.

Outline:
Study Aim Background and Design
Participant Population
Study Procedures
Research Risks
Confidentiality
Benefits
Compensation
Costs
Alternative
Consent/Assent Process and Documentation of Consent/Assent
Investigator Qualifications
Funding Sources

From the Paper
"The recruiting process will begin approximately one month prior to conduct of the survey and interviews. Permission will be obtained from In-Home Supportive Services to obtain their assistance with the study. A letter will be mailed to potential participants in the IHSS database. The database allows the researcher to obtain the primary language of consumers prior to initial contact. The letter will announce the study and inform the consumers that they may be randomly selected to participate in a phone survey/interview. A letter of support from In-Home Supportive Services will be included that highlights the value and importance of the study, as well as their support of it. These letters will be in the primary language of the participant selected. "

Tags:newcomers, care, health, support

Abstract
This paper discusses the gap that exists between the rich and the poor, explaining that it has been widening for two decades. The paper explains that the problem exists because there are no benefits for the poor, whereas the rich get everything. Data is provided that shows that, in recent years, there has been an increase in the incomes of the rich people while, gradually, the middle class is vanishing.

Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Index of Social Health
Difference between Social Index and Dow Jones Average

From the Paper
''THE gap between the rich and poor has widening for two decades as hardworking families pay record tax bills. The rich are getting richer day by day and the poor are getting poorer. The problem is there are no benefits for the poor where as the rich get everything. The data tells us that since the past decade there has been an increase in the incomes of the rich people. Slowly and gradually the middle class is vanishing.
''Since the early 1960s, people have lived with these questions and with the tension between activism and scholarship, which have tried to mediate with research on a number of questions about American social institutions, public policy, and reform.''

Tags:economic, incomes, benefits

Abstract
This paper provides an overview description of the Medicare and Medicaid programs, government-sponsored programs whose objective is to provide patients with health assistance upon meeting specific criteria. The paper explains that Medicare is the federal program that provides insurance for elderly patients aged 65 and over, and approximately 40 million people are enrolled in this program, while Medicaid is an insurance program that is available for disadvantaged persons, including the elderly, who cannot afford health benefits because of low incomes or other factors. The paper goes on to state that both programs are subsidized by government funds and in many instances, will cover the costs of basic medical care as well as specialized testing and supplies. After discussing higher prescription drug prices and the lack of affordability of health care in general, the paper concludes that a successful health care program may hinge on developing an ongoing program to care for those who need it while promoting better health amongst those who can still benefit from an improved and healthy lifestyle.

From the Paper
" Especially disconcerting is the fact that many of the individuals who have these drugs prescribed for their use are the elderly, who can usually ill-afford the rising costs but often depend on those medicines to maintain a certain quality of life. What these individuals are faced with are "pharmacy benefit expenses (that) have risen 15 percent to 20 percent annually, outpacing all other areas of managed care, according to IMS America, a leading drug-tracking firm based in Plymouth Meeting, Pa" (Epstein, pg. 73). Oftentimes, the elderly are faced with declining health, a fixed income and the ever present thought of dying. Such scenarios can many times lead to a state of depression and because our society seems to hold a quick-fix type of mentality, drugs are often the answer when compared to other cures. This is true from the sufferer's point of view as well as the doctor's perception(s). An example can be shown in regards to the use of prescription drugs to alleviate depression. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) reports that in 2005, antidepressants were the class of drugs most prescribed, and that there were over 117 million prescriptions for antidepressants written in 2005 alone."

Tags:prescription, drugs, cost, healthcare, rising, reform, government, sponsored