Abstract An argument that for a justified true belief theory of knowledge to work, the justification component must be such that an acceptable justification logically implies the truth of the content of the belief. The paper first shows how weaker views of justification will always be susceptible to counterexamples like Gettier's and Feldman's. The paper then shows how the notion of justification defined above makes it impossible to have counterexamples and then make a case for why the strong view is appropriate, even given that it probably leads to skepticism. The nature of justification within a viable theory of knowledge needs to have the strength of logical implication, and as such may have to lead to skeptical considerations.
From the Paper "The characterization of knowledge as justified true belief is a very powerful concept, and despite the assorted difficulties that arise in definitions that equate knowledge with justified true belief, such definitions still seem the most intuitively plausible starting points for a theory of knowledge. It is fairly obvious that one cannot know that p if one does not believe that p, and it is equally indisputable that p has to be true for one to be able to know it. It is that whole "justified" bit that is the tricky part and that tends to mess things up for justified true belief (JTB) theories of knowledge. In this paper I hope to offer a characterization of justification within the framework of a JTB theory of knowledge that leads to a cohesive theory of what is required for one to have knowledge, one that is not subject to the loopholes and weaknesses that lead other JTB theories to incorrectly admit certain beliefs as knowledge. Specifically, I will claim that for one's belief that p to constitute knowledge that p, one's justification j for believing that p must be such that (i) j logically implies p, and (ii) every statement within the justification is true. I will argue that such a strong notion of justification is needed for a JTB theory to avoid being susceptible to counterexamples like those offered in Edmund Gettier's famous paper and elsewhere. Further, I will contend that for a JTB theory to work, the concept of justification must be such that in considerations of "justified beliefs," "justified" works, in the words of Peter Unger, as an absolute term. I will then use this later point to allay concerns, which are certainly valid, that the strong notion of justification I am presenting in this paper directly leads to skepticism."
Abstract This paper focuses on the two passages - one from Nietzsche's "The Gay Science" and the other from Kierkegaard's "Fear and Trembling". The paper discusses their common focus of the issue of belief in the modern world. However, the paper also argues they have adopted distinctly different approaches to how people in the modern world should relate to the practice of religion and the belief in a transcendent deity.
From the Paper " Religion and Belief in the Modern World: The importance of this question is highlighted by Nietzsche in the opening sentence of the passage where he asks: "Who are we anyway?" "
Abstract Various sources of the political beliefs of the author will be examined and their effects on shaping the author's political beliefs are discussed. Some of those sources include the author's family, education, the media, her peer and her religion. Finally, a discussion on how those elements all came together to create the political beliefs the author holds today is included.
Abstract This paper summarizes the Dieri, Bevenda, and Cherokee structures of religious belief and touches upon their tribal beliefs about god and gods, key myths, and rituals. The paper also compares the Cherokee beliefs to the Aboriginal beliefs and highlights their differences.
From the Paper "The Dieri, an aboriginal tribe of Australia, the Oklahoma tribe of the Cherokee, and the Bevenda may all be subsumed under the common category of ?native people,? when comparing such indigenous faiths with the common faith of those who colonized these individuals, namely white Christians. However, upon closer examination of the religions practices of these groups, there emerge equally striking differences between one another that belay such easy elision under the term ?native.?"
This paper analyzes the philosophy of renowned historian G.W. Hegel, who is believed to have created the philosophy of history, based on his life experiences and beliefs.
Abstract The writer of this paper presents an intensive examination of G.W. Hegel's philosophy of history. This paper compares and contrasts Hegel's beliefs and theories to those of Karl Marx. This paper discusses the speculation that renowned historian and philosopher Hegel created the philosophy of history based on his own life experiences and personal beliefs. The writer explores the argument that says history and philosophy are two entirely different entities, of which Hegel was deeply involved in both. This paper also touches on the experts who believe that Hegel was a believer in the theory of predestination. According to this school of thought, Hegel believed history to be an already fixed and unchangeable fact, that mankind only watches as a spectator. The writer contends and explains why Hegel's life and work is founded on the belief that history is nothing more than a dialectical progression. This paper also details Hegel's basic philosophy which is steeped in the belief that spirit and reason are fundamentally crucial to the development of history. Hegel believed that history is nothing more than spirit striving to find its own freedom.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Who He Was
His Philosophy
His Life
His Impact
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "GW Hegel took on a most difficult task when he decided to spend his life philosophizing about history and mankind. As a philosopher of history Hegel had to walk a line between rewriting history to fit his philosophical beliefs and changing those beliefs to fit what was actually happening in history. It was a line he walked well though critics have pointed out what they believed to be discrepancies. His life work was based on trying to find the basic truths about history and mankind while at the same time examining the sub-topics that went along with those things by natural progression."
Abstract This paper discusses how it is almost impossible in today's age to trust any form of research implicitly. However, it is part of human nature to gather information as a form of research, connect it with our preexisting ideals, thoughts, and memories, and then form beliefs based on this new perception or "knowledge". There are, however, some forms of research that are generally considered more "true" or reasonable than others. It contends that although the Internet is becoming increasingly acceptable as a research domain, users must be intelligent and skeptical when deciding upon the reliability of Internet research.
Outline
Abstract
Introduction: The Belief Engine
Units of Belief Belief and Research
Research on the Internet
Conclusion
From the Paper "The Internet is also a forum where bad research can be particularly harmful because a number of Internet "hoaxsters" deliberately plant wrong information which can appear quite respectable or even scientific at first glance. Many websites post hoaxes about famous people, politics, productions or organizations - sometimes in the sake of satire or humour, but other times simply to be misleading. There are also a number of "mirror websites" designed to deceive users into believing they have accessed a real, reputable site; the "mirror" site design can be so believable that many users have trouble determining its fakeness (Internet Detective, 2006). The Internet also publishes a lot of urban legends (incorrect stories or rumours that are presented as truth), scams, frauds, and Hate sites that perpetuate malicious, untrue information about an organization, person, religion, or political viewpoint (ibid). "
Abstract This research explores the issue of obesity, specifically as it impacts high risk groups such as pre-adolescent children, sedentary women and the elderly or infirm. The theoretical framework for this examination is the health belief model (HBM), which is designated as a mode to altering individual health beliefs and, consequently, altering individual health behaviors. The paper uses the health belief model as the assumptive basis for the idea that intervention with obesity can be accomplished through its application. By addressing first the implications to the health of obesity, as well as some of its core causes, it endeavors to consider the ways in which the health belief model can be applied to the specific demographics in order to yield positive intervention outcomes toward the prevention, reduction or reversal of obesity.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Research Problem
Theoretical Framework
Methodology
Findings
Recommendations
Conclusion
From the Paper "The culture of the United States, which embraces expediency, convenience and affordability above all else, has rendered us a nation addicted to fast-food and counter-nutritional excess. Contrarily, we are also obsessed with glamour and beauty which manifests in a nation that is dually addicted to dietary methods and eating disorders. This is a complicated morass of socially implanted values which begins early in individuals. Apparently in concert with these tendencies in our cultural outlook, our nation's children are evermore susceptible to pre-adolescent obesity or some form of eating disorder either to excess or to insufficiency. In addition to these decidedly negative trends, a rise in the predominance of sedentary forms of activity such as video-games, internet use and television intake have had a contributory factor to both obesity and the initiation of lifelong trends of detrimental health behavior. "
Abstract In this study, the writer's three beliefs about language teaching are discussed. The writer also identifies possible constraints that affect putting these beliefs into practice and evaluates whether these constraints can be overcome. The writer maintains that the teacher's beliefs about language teaching reflect the attitudes toward different types of teaching approaches and the constraints affect the teaching practice. According to the writer, establishing a link between beliefs and practice offers a number of implications for language teaching practitioners that might help to improve their attitudes, methods, and approach.
Outline:
Introduction
Teaching Environment
Teacher as a Motivator
Lessons Should Be Interactive
Language Teaching is Culture Teaching
Constraints
Conclusions
From the Paper "In most cases, the setting contributes to the way in which language is taught depending on availability of resources, types of tests, value of the language and so forth. Therefore, it is necessary to outline my teaching environment before going any further. As a tutor of Japanese, I have been teaching intermediate level oral and written Japanese to college students ranging in age from 18 to 25 in New Zealand since the beginning of 2007. Teaching involves approximately five hours a week in classroom and the classrooms are adequate for the average class size, which is between ten and fifteen, with equipment for presenting visual materials. The university has a language laboratory and a very small collection of books written in Japanese. Course materials consist of the set textbook, which can be classified as predominately a situational based syllabus with a functional syllabus, and the accompany workbook. Not many other supplementary teaching materials are available so teachers are encouraged to prepare their own materials."
Abstract This paper examines how the concept of moral relativism is extremely troubling for many and how the human animal is desperately in need of a certain ?moral order,? or an intense longing to have life's issues, events, and decisions neatly classified into realms of "good" and ?bad,? "right" and "wrong". It looks at how, in her work "Moral Beliefs", Philippa Foot gives her take on this issue, namely, in her response to the viability of systems of belief that allow moral eccentrism, the foundation on which moral relativism is built, and her belief in the untenability of the non-cognitivist position.
From the Paper "In addition to the established meaning derived from their commonly understood use, Foot also explains that all of these words have an internal judgment placed on them, or an assessment of their "value" good or bad, based on their internal relationship to an ?object.? Further, it is the connection between the value, the object, and the logical reason that allow one to make the correct (and not relative) judgment concerning that value. Foot specifically makes the leap from the more mundane life value judgments represented by fear, danger, pride, etc, to ?those attitudes or beliefs which are the moral philosopher's study.?(91) In specific, she writes, "Now we must consider whether those attitudes or beliefs"are similar, or whether such things as "evaluation" and "thinking something good" and "commendation" could logically be found in combination with any object whatsoever.?"
Abstract This paper examines the statement: "Considering that Hinduism lacks a uniting belief system, what makes up the Hindu religion?" It argues that because Hinduism has a looser belief system than other religions, it is sometimes perceived to have no uniting belief system. The paper also looks at cultural and societal influences that have made Hinduism vital to the region in which it originated and Hinduism's desire for liberation from earthly desires.
From the Paper "Hindu scholars say that Hindu is a guide for life. Each person follows his or her own path. That path will be different for each person, because each person's soul needs to learn different lessons before being reincarnated again (Subramuniyaswami, 2000). While most religions have rules to follow, such as the Ten Commandments or the rules laid down itne Qu'ran, Hindu does not have such rigid rules. In Hindu, each person is supposed to study and pray and develop the wisdom to choose his or her actions wisely (Subramuniyaswami, 2000)."
Abstract The paper shows how religion is one of the defining aspects of someone's life, and their culture. A lot of races, nationalities and countries are founded upon the beliefs of their religion. Their culture becomes mirrored in those beliefs, as does the structure of their society. Four religions with such influences - Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Shinto - are explored in this paper.
From the Paper "It is unfortunate that so much of the history of Judaism, and its influence on civilization is surrounded by a lot of negativity. Of course, the Holocaust is by far the cruelest genocide in history, and the cause of the many Jewish immigrants to America. Adaptations of their beliefs and culture have formed the different divisions in Judaism ? Reform, Conservative and Orthodox. There are many cultural characteristics that can be attributed to Jews, but their food, their holidays (Chanukah, Yom Kippur, Purim), and their coming of age parties (Bar Mitzvah, Bat Mitzvah) are some of the more notables. Their food is kosher, and that has brought an entirely separate type of butcher, markets, etc. Some ballparks even serve kosher hot dogs! Synagogues, much like churches, are also architectural statements in their community. Jewish holidays are not as recognized and celebrated nationally as Christian ones, but there are now changes being made in school curriculum to allow for observance of their many festivals."
Abstract This paper examines the argument whether ethical objectivism or ethical relativism is the better view in relation to judging human beliefs and behavior. It puts forward the views of the eminent anthropologist Ruth Benedict who believes that human beliefs and actions vary because different cultures are exposed to numerous environments and have various histories and how a type of ethical relativism known as conventionalism, asserts moral decisions dependent upon the society one lives in. It also presents the argument for ethical objectivism as proclaimed by the philosopher Louis Pojman. In conclusion, the writer chooses which side of the debate he agrees with and describes why.
From the Paper "The eminent anthropologist Ruth Benedict believes human beliefs and actions vary because different cultures are exposed to numerous environments and have various histories. She endorses a type of ethical relativism known as conventionalism, which asserts moral decisions are dependent upon the society one lives in. In other words most people living in society are like plastic in that they can be shaped according to the fashion of a particular culture. In short, normality is culturally defined. The best examples to illustrate how normality is social constructed are cultures where an abnormality of our culture is the cornerstone of another society's culture."
Abstract The article by Chavez, McMullin, Mishra and Hubbell (2001) presents the results of a study conducted to investigate the research question: to what extent do cultural beliefs affect health behavior?
Abstract This paper is written about the continuity, change, and religious beliefs in the 19th and 20th Centuries. It can be observed in Encounter, The Moving Castle, and Words of Farewell that current religious beliefs are characterized as much by continuity as by change. Continuity and change are not paradoxical trends in Korean religious life because two cultures and two competing worldviews are maintained in a state of balance.
Abstract This paper will discuss the nature of three political beliefs that will be contended within a scope of social thought. Pro choice, the Draft, and legalization of marijuana will be discussed in order to provide sound arguments for the way that these systems are upheld. By dissecting these beliefs within a social framework, we can see how they are a controversy in today's society.
