Abstract This paper explains that Behaviour Therapy and Rational Emotive Therapy were developed around the middle of the 20th century. The paper begins by discussing Behaviour Therapy, which focusses on the client's behaviour, it draws from classical and operant conditioning procedures and works to abolish maladaptive behaviours through replacing these with more adaptive ones. The paper then explains that Rational Emotive Therapy, on the other hand, moves to replace irrational beliefs that are causing distress or discomfort in the client's life with more rational beliefs. These two therapies have both differences and similarities which are discussed further within this paper.
From the Paper "Behaviour Therapy was introduced into the psychological world during the 1950s to counter the criticisms of psychodynamic theories of this era. Designed to focus upon observable behaviour, Behaviour Therapy (BT) strayed from the focal point of unconscious mental processes in which psychodynamic theory was based and laid a different foundation (the belief that maladaptive behaviours become linked with certain stimuli through chance) that would be followed for years to come (Carlson, Buskist & Martin, 2000). BT drew from previous psychological works such as Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning principles and by the 1970's it became the preferred treatment approach to many presented psychological disorders."
Abstract This paper examines how the behaviour modification techniques that have appeared most effective in the special education setting are mainly positive reinforcement and contingency management. It discusses how teachers should attempt to ensure that they provide frequent but variable ratio reinforcement for appropriate behaviour and how they should deny inappropriate behaviour reinforcement by means of time out or other contingency management. It also contends that just as students vary in their learning styles, teachers may need to identify different techniques to be effective for individual students.
From the Paper "Behaviour modification techniques using the theories of operant conditioning include positive and negative reinforcement, contingency management, and operant aversion therapy. Positive reinforcement aims to increase the frequency of a behaviour by giving the subject a reinforcer (or reward) for the behaviour. In the educational setting, the reinforcer may be combined with the feedback that the behaviour is correct and or appropriate, taking the form of praise, recognition, ticks, stamps, stickers, or good marks. (Favaro, 1986 as cited in Laird, 1992). Some students may not respond to these less concrete reinforcers and a more concrete reward may be required. "
Abstract The paper discusses three explanations for the behaviour of gangs in society and notes that their behaviour is composed of a complex of social, cultural and psychological contributory components. The paper relates that increases in gang incidences appear as a result of social, cultural and economic activity and that evidence shows that gang involvement is a socio-economical phenomenon and should be dealt with in this category. The paper further investigates the psychological point of view and gives explanation and understanding for this type of activity and suggests that only a criminal justice policy can correct these types of behaviour.
From the Paper "Gangs have been the subject of detailed scholarly analysis for almost a century, with this analysis tending almost from the beginning to recognize gangs not simply as a criminal justice problem, or an example of disturbed youth, but rather as a form of social organization that develops in response to a range of specific social, economic and cultural stimuli, and actually comprises a spectrum of behaviours which - although often deviant and anti-social - nonetheless represent a logical response to these stimuli."
Abstract This paper explores the contributions of the four core social science disciplines that comprise the study of organizational behaviour namely, psychology, sociology, social psychology and anthropology. The paper provides clear examples of how research advances and refines the discipline of organizational behaviour. Also examined by the paper, is the potential impact research has on management practices and organizational performance.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Contributions of Psychology
Contributions of Sociology
Contributions of Social Psychology
Anthropology
Conclusion
From the Paper "Organizations are becoming increasingly complex, diverse, and global. Corporations must adapt rapidly to changing demands within the competitive global market. Optimum productivity in the workplace emerges from superior leadership paired with exceptional employee attributes, attitudes, and performance. The collective disciplines of organizational behaviour are evolving and responding to these changes by identifying what specific factors and/or behaviours create workplace synergy and lead to fulfilling work experiences for employers and employees alike. Each discipline contributes distinctly ensuring that all aspects of personal behavior as well as social and cultural influences are understood and accounted for in grasping the complexities of organizational behaviour."
Abstract The paper discusses the resulting behaviour of an over-consumption of alcohol and the existence of this behavior in university and college environments. The author finds that the consumption of alcoholic beverages can result in a decrease in awareness and judgment which can result in a person engaging in an activity which he/she might not have had if not under the influence. The writer looks at the damaging effects of an over-consumption of alcohol when coupled with sexual contact.
From the Paper "Alcohol also has some serious effects in regards to human sexual behaviour. One of these effects is increased violence, and the increased probability of a sexual assault taking place. This has been a serious problem at most universities and colleges in Canada and the United States. Results from several empirical studies have suggested strong associations between alcohol consumption and sexual aggression on campus (Crowe & George, 1989; Commission on Substance Abuse at Colleges and Universities, 1994). This is a very common trend among the universities and colleges due to the heavy drinking that many of these individuals partake in, and or the illicit drugs that they may be using. In many situations the individual to which the sexual assault has taken place has been coerced under the influence of alcohol and or illegal drugs. In a Miller and Marshall (1987) study, 60% of the women who engaged in unwanted sexual intercourse reported that they had been using alcohol or other drugs when coerced."
Tags: awareness, human, impacts, judgement, university
Abstract The paper argues that although rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) has been described as an anti-humanistic theory, REBT does subscribe to many of the same premises that characterize a humanistic perspective. The paper describes these premises as they apply to working with children and adolescents, such as the fact that REBT espouses the establishment of a therapeutic relationship, it stresses self-actualization, self-efficacy and self-reliance and it emphasizes affective education.
From the Paper "Although rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) has been tested with many disorders and has fared well in psychotherapy and counselling outcome studies, critics throughout the years have maintained that REBT places too little emphasis on the therapeutic relationship (David, & Belloiu, 2002, 93-131), and that rational is equated with being "cold, calculating, and certainly manipulative".
"Consequently, according to Irish study for these as well as other reasons, REBT has often been described as an anti-humanistic theory. People who listen to the critics not only fail to distinguish between therapeutic conditions and therapeutic style, but they also practice a form of irrational thinking by over generalizing and assuming that all REBT practitioners are insensitive, display poor interpersonal skills, and must be as linguistically colourful as its founder Albert Ellis (Ellis, & Dryden, 2007, 11-13)."
Tags: self-actualization, empowerment, counselor, humanism, mental, health
Abstract In this essay, the writer discusses effective teaching, particularly focusing on behaviour management. The other aspects of effective teaching studied in the article are the importance of planning, assessment and classroom management. The writer also considers other aspects of effective teaching for instance, making the activities exciting which will allow the children to become engaged in the activities. The writer maintains that creating an environment in which children can effectively work in is beneficial to both the teachers and the children. The writer concludes that if the activities are engaging and exciting this will encourage the children to want to learn, which will then in turn make the lessons run more efficiently. Thus, the children will be getting more from the lessons.
From the Paper "For the lessons to be engaging it will take a mix of assessment and planning. Previous lessons can be assessed, based on how the children responded to the activity e.g. if the children met the Intended Learning Outcomes. Early Years Foundation Stage Curriculum asks the question; Do you review the environment and the resources after each session? The children can also be asked to see what they thought of the lessons and if they would have changed the lesson. The feedback that will be received depends on the age and ability of the children. This will make the children feel like they are participating in their own learning. It will also show the children that they are able to communicate with their teacher and share their feelings, therefore they will listen when the teacher has something to say - mutual respect. Then the children's responses and personal reflections can be combined to have a more effective outcome."
Abstract This paper examines the resurgent rise in social psychology of the questioning of rational choice in everyday life. It argues that rational choice can explain everyday behaviour only to the extent that the behaviour(s) under consideration can be said to flow from reasoned deliberation. The paper reviews conceptions of rationality; examines the concept of behaviour in and finally discusses the limits to which rational choice can be used to explain behaviour in everyday life.
Table of Contents:
Rationality and Rational Choice
A Question of Behaviour Individual Behaviour Group Behaviour Spontaneous Behaviour Premeditated Behaviour Rational Choices, Everyday
Conclusion
From the Paper "Questions of the extent to which rational choice can explain behaviour in everyday life are arguably ones of relatively recent creation. Aristotle arguably took for granted the fact that rational choices explained actions or behaviour. In book seven of his Nicomachean Ethics he clearly delineates that goals come from character, which he deems the non-rational part of humans, while action and the choices of ways to proceed toward those goals, ones choice of action or behaviour, flow from the intellect - the rational part of individuals. The Enlightenment thinkers developed his position and more than held to his commitment to rationality. The primacy they accorded reason, and humanity's ability to reason, played a great part in the formation of the Enlightenment ideal of rationality."
Abstract This paper explains that Skinner's theory of operant conditioning attempts to define the natural laws of behaviour in which a meaningful and voluntary action stimulates an organism's behaviour. The author reviews several studies relating to the use of operant conditioning to provide positive and negative reenforment in teaching and modifying behaviour. The paper concludes that these studies provide evidence for the relevancy of operant conditioning procedures to human learning and behaviour acquisition.
From the Paper "Operant conditioning can be used for much more complex learning tasks than training a rat to press a lever. In a study by Veraat and Cremieux (1992), researchers used operant conditioning to teach blind cats to use a ultrasonic echolocation prosthesis to navigate mazes and learn to perceive depth. The kittens in the study were deprived of site at a very young age, and then given a prosthetic device that detected depth and distance of physical objects. When the kittens grew into cats, a number of behavioural tests were done, including one that tested their locomotor behaviour in mazes, and another that tested their ability to jump and perceive depth."
Two case-studies of relatively simple autonomous robot projects followed by a discussion of embodied cognition, emergent behaviour and how these concepts apply to the above robots.
1,595 words (approx. 6.4 pages), 2 sources, 2001, $ 52.95
Abstract This document is comprised of case studies of two autonomous robot projects, namely Frank Scott's Hexapod Robots, and MIT's Robot Ant Colony. Each case study describes the behaviour each robot exhibits, and technical information on how this behaviour is executed including mechanical parts, digital circuitry and programming techniques. The case studies are followed by a discussion of embodied cognition, and how the above robots' actions can be explained in terms of embodied cognition. It also discusses emergent phenomenon, both in nature and artificially intelligent robots.
From the Paper "The Rodney series of robots refers to a group of three six-legged autonomous robots whose design is based upon Rodney Brooks' subsumption architecture. Rodney 3 is the most refined and recent robot. It supersedes both Rodney 1 & 2 and for this reason will be the focus of this summary. Rodney 3 is designed to operate in an environment featuring a slightly uneven surface that may be interrupted by many small obstacles and an occasional large obstacle, e.g. a pebbled track with the odd large stone or similar obstacle. The robot's task is to climb over the smaller objects, and to avoid objects that are too large to climb over. To achieve the climbing action, all six legs must be able to operate independently of each other. The robot travels forward in a straight line until a large object is encountered. To avoid the object, it must reverse a few steps, shift its direction and continue its forward motion."
Abstract This paper provides a critical comparison of two common brief therapies--cognitive behaviour therapy and brief solution focused therapy. A thorough analysis of the current themes and practices used in these two treatments is made in order to provide the foundation for a comprehensive comparison of the two. Their similarities and differences are presented and it is concluded that both techniques are effective in managing a variety of problems.
From the Paper "Brief solution focused therapy (BSFT) was developed in the early 1980's by Steve de Shazer and colleagues, whose philosophy to focus on solutions rather than problems became the foundation of this therapy (de Shazer & Berg, 1997). The main goal of BSFT is to help clients access their own strengths and capacities and to help them develop and recognise these as a means to change (Durrant, 2000). A core assumption of BSFT is that there are always exceptions to problems, instances in which the problem will not occur. These exceptions are brought to the client's attention almost immediately in the first session by the counsellor (Stalker, Levene & Coady, 1999). Another important assumption of BSFT is that solutions don't have to have much in common with problems, with the same basic therapy producing changes in a wide variety of cases (Stalker et. al.)."
Abstract This paper examines studies pertaining to violent video games as encouragers of aggressive behaviour. The paper explains that these studies take different approaches to the same mechanism that much previous research has asserted to exist between young people who play violent video games and observable aggression expressed in their thinking and self-expression or behaviour. The writer points out that one paper was found to be more thoughtful, varied, less reductive and more generative of new questions than the others towards reflection on what studies of this variety can produce in terms of useful or stimulating information. The writer then looks at how all three studies indicate the sway in psychology of what previous studies have found in numbers, in studies of varying quality or small differences seeming to be unanimous in correlating violent video games and user aggression. The writer concludes that many studies addressing violent video games in relation to aggression obviously point to an unspoken question as to why such aggression of sometimes very serious forms is demonstrated by many persons in North America - a society that has attained one of the highest standards of living, ever seen.
From the Paper "A comment is made on violent media as known to produce aggressive behaviour according to various studies of different kinds. The conclusion repeats the introduction's statement on violent video games perhaps inducing automatic aggressive associations of the self. However, the reader is never quite sure what aggressive associations of the self are. One presumes that a student of a certain age has enough insight to report that, yes, he or she is aware of feeling angry or 'wired up' after interacting with a violent video game, but this need mean very little. Perhaps a student having had a difficult morning or a delayed trip to school would report that he or she also felt aggressive, or a student having had to deal with an intense, unpleasant experience of another kind. Again, is aggression anger, or anger expressed outwardly, or annoyance?"
Abstract This paper discusses how gambling activities, such as the card game poker, have become increasingly popular forms of entertainment over the years and how, once a round-the-table household activity for men, poker games now constitute major attractions in casinos. It looks at how many individuals have developed patterns of gambling behaviour characterized by addiction and loss of control and how this has occurred to the extent that gambling addiction groups are sprouting up all across the world. The paper also contends that gambling activities such as poker provoke addictive behavioural responses, which should be recognized as such by society as a whole.
Outline:
Introduction
An Addiction
Research on Poker: Gender Differences?
Conclusion: Cause for Action - An Increasing Problem
From the Paper "Poker is one of the most common forms of gambling, and one of the oldest. As a legalized form of gambling, many gambling addicts are poker addicts (or slot addicts, or horse betting addicts, etc). Pathological gambling is recognized as a disorder of impulse control in the DSM-IV, though it was first listed in the DSM III in 1980 (Black & Moyer, 1998, p. 1434). The DSM-IV criteria recognizes pathological gambling as a serious disorder whereby individuals: are preoccupied with gambling; need to gamble in increasing amounts of money; report repeated unsuccessful efforts to cut down or stop gambling; become restless and/or irritable when attempting to cut down on gambling; are tempted to return to gambling to "break even"; lie to conceal the extent of gambling; jeopardize their relationships with others owing to gambling; may lose their job owing to gambling; and rely on others to relieve their desperate financial situation caused by gambling (Petry & Armentano, p. 1022). "
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that a great many characteristics and qualities merge together to form individual identities that help to separate each human being as a unique entity. The writer points out that based on these characteristics, society is often able to categorize individuals, such as age, gender, or race. This paper examines four common human characteristics; gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status and ethnicity and looks at how each of these traits can impact an individual's behaviour. The writer maintains that characteristics do influence behaviour, and they do contribute to diversity. The writer concludes that one must also consider the extent to which society impacts the decisions of individuals to behave in ways that either conform to or deviate from the expected norms associated with any particular characteristic.
From the Paper "The scope of this paper is far to narrow to discuss all of the ways in which gender can impact an individual's behaviour, but the important fact to understand about the link between gender and behaviour is that it is quite arbitrary. The link is one, which has, for the most part, been socially constructed.
"Sexual orientation is a topic of diversity that is quite prevalent in today's popular media. Sexual orientation refers to the enduring nature of an individual's sexual and emotional attractions to either members of the same-sex, opposite-sex, or both sexes. Individuals who are attracted to members of the same-sex are homosexuals, while individuals who are attracted to members of the opposite-sex are referred to as heterosexuals."
Abstract This paper analyses the phenomenon of deviant behaviour in present day. It includes explanations of three domains of human experience when attempting to define abnormal behavior and functioning. These domains include biological, psychological and sociocultural criteria for ascertaining abnormal behavior. It studies the issue of giving children medication in order to solve behavioral and educational problems. It concludes that medicalization of deviancy is just a way out of the actual problems, and is ineffective and even destructive at times.
From the Paper "Over the years the concept of deviance has changed. Ten years ago sex outside marriage was a taboo, divorce rare and the nuclear family stable. Today sex is common, divorce the new fad and the single or same sex family the norm. As society changes deviant behavior takes on a new definition depending on the norm of the times.
As we see society change we see that many fundamental basics of sociology too are undergoing a change. Religion has given way to secularism, the family system is no longer a societal pillar and the media is all-pervasive. Simply observing a magazine will show the changes that have taken place in the span of a decade. As we see crime statistics rise and the increasing number of children with deviant behavior patterns we see that the concepts of normality and deviance are changing as well. According to Freud (1999), normality is a value-based concept. It is influenced by the historical moments and sociopolitical economics. As a society, we decide who is normal and who is deviant (Freud, 1999). We also decide what will be done with those who deviate from what we deem as normal (Freud, 1999). Normality is also highly culture specific (Freud, 1999). Deviance/abnormality can be very problematic as any type of behavior can be considered deviant by a culture at some point or another (Curra, 2000; Halgin & Whitbourne, 1997). This is known as cultural relativity. According to Gelfand, Jenson, and Drew (1997) and Halgin and Whitbourne (1997), most all cultures identify some behaviors as abnormal. Halgin and Whitbourne (1997) explain three domains of human experience when attempting to define abnormal behavior and functioning. These domains include biological, psychological and sociocultural criteria for ascertaining abnormal behavior."
Tags: medical, deviance, Halgin, Whitbourne, behaviour, phsychological, biological, sociocultural, society
