Abstract
This paper explains that today the American Indian tribes are believed to have sovereign powers, which can be characterized as independent from both the federal and state governments. Therefore, they are considered to be a nation within a nation under the current American legal system. The writer points out that there are, however, limitations to the tribes' jurisdiction. The paper concludes that, as evidenced by the stand off at Wounded Knee and numerous other historical events, it is clear that Native-American Indians desire real authority over their own relations amongst themselves and perceive themselves as degraded by the lack of full sovereignty.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Challenges of Native American Sovereignty
Wounded Knee
Conclusion: The Future of Native American Sovereignty

From the Paper
"In the end, the events at Wounded Knee were exceedingly far more traumatic for Native American Indians in this country than it was for the white American population. The Wounded Knee incident was a direct result of the near-century long inability for Native Americans to come to an agreement with the majority population on the issue of sovereignty within their lands. The form of tribal government that had been granted to the Natives was thus not efficient in solving problems on reservations."

Tags:self-determination intervention jurisdiction globalization, red power

Abstract
This paper describes how two native tribes, the Kogi and the Kallawaya, have adapted to the conditions of the Andes mountains. There are similarities and differences in how these two groups have approached survival in this harsh climate. Both groups have relied on vertical farming and living in order to maximize arable land for food production and dwelling.

From the Paper
"Ancient Andean Tribes: the Kogi and the Kallawaya The Andes mountain range is home to two different groups of native dwellers. One group, the Kogi tribe, descendants of the Tairona, lives in the mountains of Colombia. The second group, the Kallawaya, is native to Bolivia. Both groups have adapted effectively to living in the harsh Andes climate; however, they have adapted quite differently from each other. This paper will be used to describe several of the similarities and several of the differences that exist between these groups. The ancient Andean tribes created a method of adapting to their environment known as `verticality' or the `vertical archipelago.' The tribes that lived in these hostile mountain regions created a series of pastures and croplands that often stretched for "sixty or more kilometers from top to bottom, [which] allowed a critical mass of people to assemble who could undertake the enormous work of terracing"

Tags:kogi, kallawaya, verticality

Abstract
The paper looks at the main causes of rainforest deforestation, which are logging, agriculture and cattle grazing. The paper reveals that Japan has the highest amount of rainforest product consumption in the world and discusses the country's proposed road that is contributing to further deforestation. The paper then discusses the loss of tribal plant knowledge but focuses on the Yanomami tribe who are helpless as the government, Brazilian soldiers, poachers, cattle ranchers and other invaders continue to destroy their homeland, culture and health. The paper concludes that because we care for our own well-being and survival, we must care for the survival of the forests which is essential for present and future generations.

From the Paper
"Rainforests are the richest, oldest, most productive and complex land ecosystems on our planet. These humid and dense forests are home to over half the wild animal and plant species in existence. Rainforests are filled with all kinds of biological treasures that include hundreds of thousands of plant, animal, and insect species, most which have not yet been discovered. Biologist Norman Myers notes, "Rainforests are the finest celebration of nature ever known on the planet." They help to control the balance of atmospheric gases and have an immense impact on the world's climates. Earth's rainforests are commonly referred to as the "lungs of our planet." The turnover of oxygen that the hundreds of thousands of plant species in the rainforests produce is one of our primary defenses against global warming and the greenhouse effect. Rainforests regulate the flow of water to rivers and lakes, and release water into the atmosphere to form rain clouds. It is no exaggeration to say that future life on this planet may depend on their survival."

Tags:logging, agriculture, cattle, grazing, Yanomami, deforestation, colonization, invasion

Abstract
A discussion regarding how in recent years, mainstream society has "re-discovered" Native Americans after a period of forgetfulness. Needless to say, one of the more prominent of all the Native North American peoples has been the Cherokee - perhaps because few other native tribes (at least to this writer's knowledge) have enjoyed the territorial, geographic reach of the Cherokee nation - a nation with tribes in the Virginias, the Carolinas, and the Southern United States. This paper looks at America's Cherokee tribes and explores the manner in which their approach to warfare since the arrival of the "white man".

Tags:cherokee, nation, warfare

Abstract
In this paper, the author looks at the origins of Native American tribes. In particular he looks at the Potawatomi tribe who has a lot of history affiliated with the state of Michigan. The author examines the early history of the Potawatomi tribe from their first origins in the area as far back as 1600. The paper examines the meaning of the name Potawatomi which is a translation of the Ojibwe "potawatomink" meaning "people of the place of fire", and looks at alternate names that have been given to this tribe. The author identifies special characteristics of this tribe and looks at their population growth over the years. In conclusion, the author looks at the modern day Potawatomi tribe and what they have achieved. He comments that they have assimilated into American society and that a general governing body has been set up to try and bring them back to their roots and make sure their original reservation land remains in their hands.

From the Paper
"Shortly after the French built Fort Ponchartrain at Detroit in 1701, groups of Potawatomi settled nearby. By 1716 most Potawatomi villages were located in an area between Milwaukee to Detroit. During the 1760s they expanded into northern Indiana and central Illinois. Land cessions to the Americans began in 1807 and during the next 25 years drastically reduced their territory. Removal west of the Mississippi occurred between 1834 and 1842. The Potawatomi were removed in two groups: the Prairie and Forest Bands from northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin went to Council Bluffs in southwest Iowa; and the Potawatomi of the Woods (Michigan and Indian bands) were relocated to eastern Kansas near Osawatomie. In 1846 the two groups merged and were placed on a single reservation north of Topeka. Arguments over allotment and citizenship led to their separation in 1867. The Citizen Potawatomi left for Oklahoma and settled near present-day Shawnee. Most of their lands were lost to allotment in 1889. The Prairie Potawatomi stayed in Kansas and still have a reservation. Several Potawatomi groups avoided removal and remained in the Great Lakes."

Tags:indian, tribal, heritage, lands, mission, council, nation

Abstract
This paper examines the child raising techniques of three cultures: the Mbuti, the Yanoamo, and the !Kung. According to the author, each of these food-foraging societies showed different elements of independence training to instill survival skills.

From the Paper
"The Mbuti culture instructs independence by a way of religious means. The Mbuti have many rituals in where they give thanks to the forest. One of them is called the bamelima, where young girls go into the forest for a long period of time. This practice is to ensure cooperation between the girls for survival's sake and for later adult cooperative activity. The Mbuti see the male children as being well developed with their cooperation skills, but do not think the same of the girls. This is why this festival is for only the girls. (Turnbull, 135,136) The boys have rituals also, such as the nkumbi. This ritual practices strength training (instead of cooperation training) with strenuous labor and physical abuse. After it is through, the boys are then considered men in the village and may take part in any adult male activity. (Turnbull, 221-226) Although training methods differ, the Mbuti culture uses survival skills in rituals to teach independence in both girls and boys."

Tags:adulthood, anthropology, children, independence, kung, mbuti, child, rearing, religion, games, teaching, training, yanoamo

Abstract
In an article entitled "The Consent Paradigm: Tribal Sovereignty at the Millennium," published in the Columbia Law Review, author Scott Gould (1996) asserts that federal Indian law has changed to the extent that presently, the nature of tribal power has been transformed from "land-based sovereignty" to "sovereignty based upon consent". The author outlines the Supreme Court's ruling in Montana vs. United States,concerning the authority of the Crow Tribe to regulate hunting and fishing by non-Indians on lands within the Tribe's reservation that were owned in fee simple by non-Indians. This is the benchmark case concerning tribal civil authority over nonmembers. This case was used in the application of another case, Strate, involving an automobile accident between an employee of A-1 Contractors -- a non-Indian owned company with its principal place of business outside the reservation, who was under contract to a wholly-owned corporation owned by the Tribes -- and a non-member, non-Indian (Fredericks), who was the widow of a deceased member of the Tribes. The court's application of the Consent Paradigm to the Strate case provides evidence that it was determined to justify the doctrine on a case-by-case basis.

From the Paper
"Petitioners argued that the "exhaustion rule," as stated in National Farmers and reiterated in Iowa Mutual, justified the requirement of exhaustion of tribal remedies before allowing federal court challenges to tribal court jurisdiction on prudential considerations because "[c]ivil jurisdiction over such activities [of non-Indians] presumptively lies in the tribal courts unless affirmatively limited by a treaty provision or federal statute." (Iowa Mutual, 480 U.S. at 18.) The Strate Court, however, found this presumption to be reversed, and basing its holding on Montana, relied on an absence of congressional direction enlarging tribal court jurisdiction."

Tags:civil, liberties, constitution, supreme, court

Abstract
This paper delves into Native American history through the work of John Westly Powell, the Head of the Smithsonian's Bureau of Ethnology, to better understand how the current classification of Native American Tribes into cultural families evolved. Ethnology is defined in the paper as one of the four subdivisions of anthropology, which embraces the study of cultures in their traditional forms, as well as their adaptations to changing conditions in the contemporary world. The paper discusses Powell's belief that "race" evolved as a worldview, a collage of prejudgments that distort a person's perceptions about human differences, and group behavior. The researcher asserts that the work of John Wesley Powell, who, contrary to some citizens of the West, saw the Native Americans not as savages, but as people, should be heeded and taken to heart today. This paper contains illustrative photos and figures.

Outline:
Introduction
Native American Considerations
Ethnology Defined
John Wesley Powell
Life Synopsis
Native American Race
The Bureau of American Ethnology
Major Powell and Lewis Henry Morgan
Influence of Morgan's Book
Mutual Nurtured Interests
The Interior Department's Instructions
Conviction to Capture Changes
The Theory of Cultural Evolution
Stevenson's Quest towards a Holistic Positivism
Controversy over Builders of Mounds
Cyrus Thomas and Powell's Perceptions
Monk's Mound at Cahokia, Illinois
Poverty Point, Louisiana
The Moundville Site
Works Cited

From the Paper
" Whitney asserted that rather than stigmatizing the Indians, those who considered themselves civilized should learn everything they could from the Indians. Whitney's words "foreshadowed the theoretical perspective that Powell would pursue later by means of the method of testing mutual intelligibility statements with lexical data". To better understand how the current classification of Native American Tribes into cultural families evolved, this paper explores John Wesley Powell's work as the Head of the Smithsonian's Bureau of Ethnology.
"Prior to the establishment of the Bureau of American Ethnology (BAE), Secretary Joseph Henry, from the start of his tenure, encouraged/supported systematic efforts by the Smithsonian Institution to develop a linguistic classification. For Henry, language merited a vital status in constructing human history. Along with Henry R. Schoolcraft, who in 1855 wrote "A letter on the affinities of dialects in New Mexico" (In Vol. 5 of Information respecting the history, condition, and prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States), Henry perceived comparative philology to be the key to unravel the origins of native groups. Languages, according to Henry's understanding, evolved from instinctive, mental, physical, and environmental factors, and consequently were able to proffer clues to universal, as well as these groups' particular characteristics."

Tags:Moundville, Indian, tribal

Abstract
By using the chief of the Sioux tribe as narrator, the paper traces the history of the tribe. The paper begins with a description of life on the plains around Lake Superior, wars with the rival Ojibwa tribe and then carries the reader until the time when the tribe is forced to seek unification with other tribes in order to fight a new enemy, the white man.

From the Paper
"The white men's approach shows their nature of treachery that leaves them unfit for any pact from our end. In spite of the reality that the white men are better equipped in arms than us, forget not my men that the white man is not well equipped in his will. If we can win them, we can win by our will; by our determination; by our unity for our mother. We know the land as none other, for we have roamed therein years together for buffalo hunting and the big game.
These white men cannot overpower us if we resist their intrusion wisely. I have known that they come from different lands from far. Some are different from the others. If we can use these differences to make them fight among themselves for the land, we can win half of the battle. Then, the white men shall have the taste of their own medicine."

Tags:Minnesota, prejudices, battlefield, tribal

Abstract
This paper explains that India, which was so integral to the economic interests of Great Britain, was the critical reason for the struggle for supremacy between Britain and Russia in Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia for much of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The paper points out that this power struggle, known as the Great Game in Asia, attempted to bar Russian influence in the region and to curtail Russian advancement deep into Iran. The paper describes that the game was played like one of 'cat and mouse' with the British saw themselves as cats and the Russian as mice, yet the cats were mostly paranoid and fearful of the mouse's reprisal.

From the Paper
"Witte's assertion arose from the consolidation of the Caucasus beginning with the reorganization of Russian troops as well as controlling tribal unity. Promises were made to Muslim tribesmen where Russia offered to allow indigenous customs and faith to remain; both factors led to a quick Russian victory over the area. Between 1859 and 1864, most of the tribes had been overwhelmed by Russian advances. Now far into Muslim Asia, the thirst for glory perpetrated the ongoing Russian advancement into Central Asia (the areas east of the Caspian Sea) which was a check to British power in the region."

Tags:iran india buffer weakness, bakhtiyari tribes