Abstract One of the more challenging problems associated with hospital stays is the nosocomial infections which are caused primarily by staphylococcus aureus. The pathogen appears to be developing specific resistances to the pharmacological weapons developed to date, and the disease continues to represent a threat for many elderly people and those who are already weakened by other physical problems. To determine the cause and potential continuing threat represented by this bacterium, this paper provides a review of the epidemiology of staphylococcus aureus to determine the development of the current body of knowledge about the disease. This is followed by a summary of the research and concludes that this threat will continue and the precautions that need to be taken to try to avoid it.
From the Paper "While the world has never been a sterile place, it would seem that one of the most prevalent and virulent of mankind's microscopic foes has always been Staphylococcus aureus. In fact, staphylococci are ubiquitous, and approximately 30 percent to 50 percent of healthy human beings will be carrying staphylococci at any one time (Eidson, Olson & Sewell, 1997). Staphylococcus aureus is a genus of spherical bacteria of the family Micrococcaceae; the Staphylococcus aureus is universally present in enormous numbers on the mucous membranes and skin of humans and other warm-blooded animals. The umbrella term, "staphylococcus" is popularly used for all the species of the family, and is a reference to the cells' tendency to aggregate in grapelike clusters (Staphylococcus, 2005). Staphylococci are microbiologically characterized as gram-positive (in young cultures), non-spore-forming, nonmotile, facultative anaerobes (e.g., not requiring oxygen); the cells of S. aureus average 1 mm (micrometer; 1 mm = 10-6 meter) in diameter and are usually clustered (Staphylococcus, 2005)."
This paper is a complete research project to determine the rate of methicillin resistant staph aureus (MRSA) in the radiology department and the procedures most likely to be linked to its transmission to patients.
Abstract This study hypothesizes that patients are more likely to become exposed to methicillin resistant staph aureus (MRSA) in the radiology department via multi-use items, such as ultrasound probes using trans-dermal gel. The author reports that twelve bacterial isolates were recovered from ultrasound probes after typical cleaning procedures were used; however, no significant bacterial isolate was found on the endoscopes used for endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The paper concludes that the risk of MRSA contamination in patients is higher in radiological procedures, which use multiple use probes cleaned only with local measures, rather than endoscopes, which undergo a rigorous timed and chemical disinfection process.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Hypothesis
Literature Review
Methodology
Methods and Procedures
Evaluation
Ethical Considerations
Dissemination
Budget
Human Subjects
Results
Conclusion
Discussion
Importance
Recommendations
From the Paper "One interesting study reviewed the use of maggots in the treatment of MRSA. While not specifically germane to the subject at hand, it will show what a significant problem this health care issue has become. In this study, it was felt that it was important to discover alternatives to antibiotic resistant wounds in which no other form of treatment appeared to suffice. The goal of the study was to find a way to combat wounds and promote a healing. Ultimately it was felt that maggot therapy has been seen to act on MRSA in wounds and constitutes another area in need of study, with greater emphasis on evidence based practice."
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to develop relevant background information concerning the incidence and causes of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in general and in selected healthcare facilities in particular. According to the paper, MRSA represents a growing threat to public health and the national interests, and it is recommended that the etiology and treatment of MRSA should become the focus of a concerted nation-wide effort to develop improved treatment protocols.
Table of Contents:
Executive Summary
Discussion of Findings
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
From the Paper "By the late 1950s, different strains of S. aureus had acquired resistance to penicillin and to virtually all other available systemic antibiotics, including erythromycin, streptomycin, and the tetracyclines; these strains of S. aureus were all associated with outbreaks of hospital-acquired infections; the introduction of semisynthetic penicillins (e.g., methicillin, which are not inactivated by beta-lactamase), though, and the cephalosporin antibiotics (e.g., cephalothin, cephaloridine, and cefazolin), during the 1960s provided clinicians with some new therapeutic treatments for infections caused by these antibiotic-resistant pathogens (Chikami & Murphy 11). The organism adapted yet again, though, and methicillin-resistant strains of S. aureus (MRSA) were being identified as early as 1961; at that time, the MRSA organisms were associated with infections in Europe, but they have since become widespread around the world. "
Abstract This paper explains that the methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a nosocomial pathogen, is an epidemiological problem, which can have its source in the community and health care settings. The author relates the epidemiology of MRSA in relation to agent, host, environment, web of causation and its natural history. The paper underscores that MRSA infection presents a serious epidemiological problem because not only are new strains appearing but also a number of nosocomial MRSA infections are known to have their source in the community setting, which causes the route of transmission to remain a mystery. The author stresses that improved strategies to control and manage MRSA infection continue to be sought.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Agent
Host
Environment
Web of Causation
Natural History
Conclusion
From the Paper "Environmental factors play a very significant role in the transmission of MRSA. For example, when health care providers acquire an MRSA infection, family members of these workers and other staff members can then become infected not only from direct contact but also from environmental sites such as chairs, phones, or computer keyboards. Transmission of MRSA is also facilitated when the environment has been contaminated with toxin-producing strains. As a consequence, it is essential that prevention and control measures include cleaning of the hospital environment."
Tags: nosocomial, intensive care unit, hands management elderly
Abstract This paper examines the impact of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus on American university campuses. The paper explains that methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) gained public fame as the notorious "flesh eating bacteria." MRSA is serious because, unlike non-resistant forms of Staphylococcus aureus, it does not respond readily to a host of antibiotics commonly used to treat such illnesses. This paper utilizes the results of a survey done on MRSA and university students to develop a plan that can be used by American college campuses to help control the spread of MRSA among the student population. The paper points out that MRSA is typically associated with a hospital setting, but as outbreaks began to occur that were obviously not of a hospital origin, a new classification system was developed. The paper then looks at how this classification system has more to do with disease prevention and community health than clinical treatment of the disease.
Table of Contents:
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Chapter 3: Methodology
Chapter 4: Results
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusions
Appended is a survey questionnaire
From the Paper "MRSA has been the subject of many clinical studies. There is an abundance of information one the various drugs that have been developed to help combat the disease, its history and mutations, and methods of control in various populations. A majority of the literature has focused on MRSA in the healthcare setting. However, there is a growing body of literature that addresses MRSA in settings other than in hospitals. The reason for this growth in interest regarding Community Acquired MRSA is the growing number of outbreaks on college campuses, particularly among sports participants.
Literature focuses on the clinical aspects of control and treatment. However, there is little information on the reason for the growing concern on college campus."
Abstract This paper examines how microorganisms are extremely important aspects of our food supply: They can cause spoilage, they can ferment our foods and they can cause us illness through foods. It looks at how they can be found in all types of foods ? fresh food, prepared food and even preserved food. It covers such issues as food spoilage and inhibition of the growth of pathogens, microbial ability to cause disease in humans (using Staphylococcus aureus as a particular example) and commercial uses of microbes in food (fermentation etc).
From the Paper "Food poisoning results from ingestion of food that contains previously formed microbial toxins. The microorganisms that created the toxins are not usually alive when the contaminated food is eaten. The illness is caused by the action of the toxins. One of the most common forms of food poisoning is caused by Staphylococcus aureus. It is most often found in foods such as poultry, meat, egg and meat salads and creamy salad dressings. It results from the foods not being kept refrigerated after they have been prepared, as S. aureus can grow very rapidly at room temperature. Even if the food is heated again before ingestion, the toxin may not be destroyed as it is reasonably heat stable."
Abstract This paper explores the topic of MRSA, strains of staphylococcus aureus (SA) that are resistant to methicillin (MR) and related drugs. It looks at how, most commonly, MRSA is transmitted between individuals by direct contact and hand-washing between the care of residents is the most effective means to prevent the spread of this bacteria. It analyzes the isolation protocol for infected individuals, as well as standard precautions, such as changing gloves after each patient and good hand-washing techniques. In particular, it discusses the controversy over the role of the nursing homes and their patients in the epidemiology of MRSA.
From the Paper "It is recommended that the patient be isolated and quarantined but this is not absolutely necessary. The patient can also be kept in the same room as another patient who is known to have MRSA. Gloves and good hand washing are compulsory. The doctor or the nurse should wear a gown whenever there is a chance that a contact with the patient's wound is inevitable. This prevents infectivity of the doctor's outfit that can touch other patients and or utensils and thus spread the infection. It is probably safe to carry the patient to areas such as showers and cafeterias when the wound is covered and protected. The patient no longer needs to be in isolation after the infection has been completely cured."
Abstract The proliferation of antibiotic-resistant organisms has been the topic of much debate for many years. The overuse of antibiotics has created new strains of disease that no longer respond to antibiotics. This paper discusses two of the most common antibiotic-resistant organisms, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) and Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE).
From the Paper "The bacterium is usually spread through contact with other people that are colonized or infected with the germ. (Control of Antibiotic Resistant Organisms in Home Settings 2003) According to the Virginia Department of Health ?The germ can be spread by direct contact with the person or by the hands of someone caring for the person touching others before washing hands. MRSA can survive for an hour or more on environmental surfaces such as floors, sinks, blood pressure cuffs, etc. but these are NOT the most likely source of spread.? (Control of Antibiotic Resistant Organisms in Home Settings 2003)"
Abstract This paper discusses how information supplied by web sites and other informal sources may not necessarily provide adequate or even reliable treatment of disease and its prevention. In particular, it looks at how the information provided by Hawaii Health Guide.com (2006), contains omissions and leads to many questions. That information is critically assessed in light of what scholarly journals provide on the topic of staph infections caused by staphylococcus aureus. This paper also discusses effects of s. aureau bacteria beyond infections, how staph becomes resistant to antibiotics and how science is attempting to overcome antibiotic resistance. Prevention and treatment is also discussed.
From the Paper "According to the Hawaii Health Guide.com (2006), staph infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus are potentially in every aspect of the environment but occur when the skin is broken or punctured. Most importantly, according to the article, Staphylococcus aureus bacteria thrive in Hawaii's sultry summer heat. The article also notes that the risk of infection is highest in hospitals because of open wounds and tubes, as well as in other institutions such as nursing homes where people tend to have poor health. In fact, resistant staph is most prevalent among the homeless, in prisons, and in other populations of high density. The common features of such institutions are compromised or lack of hygiene."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a serious concern for many hospitals. The writer points out that not only are morbidity and mortality rates due to MRSA infection significant, but longer hospital stays, higher costs of treatment and the specter of treatment failure compared to methicillin-sensitive organisms are all realities that are faced. This paper outlines a proposition to implement a hospital-wide change in the hospital's handwashing policy to that utilizing a chlorhexidine-based foam. Budgetary considerations as well as a strategy for implementation and evaluation of effectiveness on MRSA infections after one year of implementation are discussed.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Current Practice
Proposed Practice
Budgetary Considerations
Concerns Regarding Change
Values and Roles
Conclusion
From the Paper "In order to improve the rate of infection from 10 cases per year to less than one per year, a new practice will be instituted based on the redundancy principle regarding implementation of handwashing procedures. Similarly redundant handwashing facilities (both handwashing stations and foam chlorhexidine gluconate) conveniently located at strategic locations. This solution will include new dispensers at strategic locations with high personnel traffic such as nurses' stations, patient rooms, specific bedside sites (e.g. in intensive care units, labor and delivery bedsides), communal areas for nurses and physicians and outpatient examination rooms. It is expected to be accomplished within 3 months with a reduction in overall and MRSA nosocomial infections after one year."
Tags: health, care, infection, mortality, hospital
This paper is a research plan of a study to be conducted on whether attending University increases the risk of acquiring methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteria, and the implications of this.
Abstract The purpose of the study is to assess whether those attending a university in the USA are at risk of acquiring methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in the university setting. The risk is assessed by determining whether there are higher incidences of MRSA carriers in the university setting than in other areas of the community, as this may signify that those carrying MRSA have acquired the bacteria through university attendance. As a secondary objective, the study aims to compile a set of recommendations which would aim to reduce the likelihood of contracting MRSA in the university environment.
Outline:
Introduction
Purpose of the study
Methods
Required Readings
Anticipated Bibliography
From the Paper "The second phase of the study would comprise of a direct study of students at my university, in order to discover the numbers of students who currently carry MRSA. A sample of students would be selected, with selection being based upon that student not being at particular risk of MRSA, i.e. not having been hospitalized in the last year, or having undergone surgery of any kind within the last year. There may also be other exclusions which would be included from the findings of the literature review. These students would then have samples taken in order to test for the presence of MRSA; such testing would need to take into account participant confidentiality. The literature review would be used in order to elucidate a specific method for sample selection, using articles involving similar successful studies.
"From the findings of the testing for MRSA, it would be possible to establish whether there are indeed higher levels of MRSA in the university population by contrasting the results with any results obtained in the literature review; it may also be possible to contrast with results from other universities. The results can also be used in order to aid in the composition of recommendations to reduce the risk of contracting MRSA while attending university."
Abstract The paper looks at the cause of a MRSA (staphylococcus aureus) infection and explains its risks for families and schools and for persons who have existing health problems. The paper then discusses its diagnosis, treatment and prevention.
Outline:
What is the Causative Agent for MRSA?
What is the Problem with this Disease?
What are the Ways for Diagnosis of MRSA?
What are the Ways of Treatment and/or Prevention?
From the Paper "The British Association of Medical Microbiologists reports that MRSA (Staphylococcus aureus) is a bacterium frequently found in the noses of up to 30 percent of "normal healthy people." It is often found on human skin, as well. But if the Staphylococcus aureus gets inside the body it can cause "important infections such as boils or pneumonia," the report continues. The problem with this particular strain of this bacterium is that there are no antibiotics that can knock it down once it has entered the internal part of the human body. The www.link.med.ed.ac.uk British medical Web site points out that individuals can become carriers of MRSA in the same exact way that they can carry the ordinary Staphylococcus aureus - by "physical contact with the organism.""
A critical assessment of a short article that recently appeared on the HeltNewsDigest.com website under the title "Even as You Work Out, Bacteria May be Bulking Up at the Gym".
Abstract This paper looks at the article "Even as You Work Out, Bacteria May be Bulking Up at the Gym", which highlights the threat coming from methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) bacteria that can be found in the gyms many of us visit. The paper discusses how the article is very short, written in a simple English and has very little additional important information. The paper maintains that the article is also not completely scientifically accurate and many points have been oversimplified. As such, it has several weaknesses that can result in misinformation.
From the Paper "There are two distinct isolates of MRSA recognized today. One of them is community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA), which is the topic of the article, while the other one is health care-associated MRSA which is mentioned but not distinguished from Ca-MRSA. There are several reasons why this should be important. The outbreaks of CA-MRSA in the community could not be associated with health care exposure among the reported cases (Kowalski et al., 2005). CA-MRSA isolates are distinctly different form nonsocomial MRSA ones. The community strains often exhibit the resistance to -lactams only. On the other hand nonsocomial MRSA shows a strong multi-antibiotic resistance pattern (Kowalski et al, 2005)."
Abstract The paper discusses the spread of methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) skin infections, influenza and the common cold that can be inhibited by proper hand-washing habits of school students. The paper describes a potential hand-washing campaign that actively involves the children themselves. The paper emphasizes that the students, with the help of the teachers, must direct the effort, because they have the most to gain and lose from the results of the program.
From the Paper "Mother was right, you should 'wash your hands!' to prevent the spread of disease! Once upon a time, encouraging children to wash their hands in school before eating or after using the bathroom was seen as a way to instill good manners in young people. Now, however, proper hand-washing can be a matter of life and death for students and educators. Approximately 1/5 of the U.S. population attends or works in school on a full or part-time basis. This means that it is essential for the health of the public as well as students and educators that proper hygiene is practiced and the risk of communicable epidemics are minimized ("Seasonal Flu Information for Schools &Childcare Providers, CDC, 2008)."
