Abstract This paper compares the different styles of poetry exhibited by Augustan poets and poets from the "Graveyard School". The paper focuses on Dryden and Swift as examples of Augustan poets and Finch and Gray as examples of poets from the "Graveyard School". The paper looks at the three main qualities of each style of poetry and then uses examples from the poetry to compare and contrast those styles.
From the Paper "Secondly, both Finch and Gray use notions that reflect a Tudor revival. Finch makes a direct reference to Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice when she repeats: "In such a night"? which echoes the same repeated phrase in the night piece that opens act V of The Merchant of Venice, when Jessica and Lorenzo are having a lover's duel talking about tragic love stories. Also, Finch uses nature imagery, like Gray, which was a tactic that Shakespeare was famous for. By using Renaissance-like styles, the two poets suggest a desire for a lost age, one that was more innocent, pure, and free of cynical, experience-obsessed poets like Swift."
A consideration of the significance of the mythological figures in the Forum Augusti and how representative they are of the Augustan regime's use of mythological imagery in public buildings and spaces.
Abstract The paper considers the role played by the Forum Augusti in shaping Roman opinion towards the Augustan regime. The paper considers in-depth the five key figures in the Forum: Aenas, Romulus, Mars, Venus and Caesar and considers how the Forum links the mythology of these figures and how it interacts with other significant monuments such as the Ara Pacis Augustae.
Table of Contents:
Section I - The Imagery of the Forum Augusti
1) Origins and Intentions
2) Physical Layout
3) Mars
4) Venus
5) Divus Julius
6) Romulus
7) Aeneas
Section II - The Imagery of the Forum in the Wider Context
8) Wider Origins and Intentions of Augustan Monuments
9) Aeneas and Romulus on the Ara Pacis Augustae
Section III - Conclusions
10) The Role of the Forum Augusti in the Augustan Foundation Myth
11) Pax Augusta
12) Divine Destiny and the Forum Augusti
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "This paper aims to investigate the roles of the mythological figures present in the Forum Augusti, their purpose as individuals and groups, and what they reveal about the aims of the Augustan use of mythological imagery. Also, how the imagery of the Augustan Forum compares with other important public building, notably the Ara Pacis and to conclude on how typical the figures and the use they are put to in the Forum is of the Augustan religious and mythological imagery on monuments at Rome. From these conclusions an assessment of the significance of the Forum Augustus as a piece of Propaganda shall be attempted, considering what, if any, unique purpose it serves. Focus will be on the key figures of Mars, Venus, Aeneas and Romulus and will attempt to consider the significance of the use of Divus Julius imager more fully than has generally occurred so far, drawing conclusions as to the relationship between the Forum of Augustan and the wider Augustan use of imagery as present in other significant buildings.
"Suetonius records the Forum Augusti was built 'because the two already in existence could not deal with the recent great increase in the number of lawsuits.....which is why it was hurriedly opened even before the Temple of Mars Ultor was completed.' The forum had long been at the heart of Rome and Augustus' Forum, dedicated in 2B.C. was intended to be no different and the senate's decisions to hold meetings discussing military matters within the main showpiece of the Forum Augusti, the Temple of Mars Ultor , brought even more activity to the Roman fora. The Forum Augusti certainly achieved what in Vitruvius' opinion was the purpose of all public buildings, enhancing the grandeur of the empire. Pliny the elder would refer to the Forum Augusti as a 'mirabile forum divi Augusti' and it certainly seems to have left its mark as one of the wonders of Rome. However, it would be naive to say the least if one was to assume that the main purpose of the Forum Augusti was the necessity of business, or even a desire to add to the visual splendour of Rome, for the Forum Augusti is full of interconnected religious and mythological imagery, and it was erected by Augustus on private land, as he records in the Res Gestae; 'In privato solo Martis Ultoris templum forumque Augustum ex manibiis feci.' "
Abstract This paper discusses how, following his consolidation of power within the remains of the Roman Republican political system, Augustus attempted to ensure the stability of his imperiate in 18 B.C.E. by economically incentivizing traditional Roman morals among the Roman populace. It examines how he established two laws, promoting marriage and procreation in the "lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus" and morality in the l"ex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis". It also looks at how the ordering of women figures so importantly in this social contract for two interconnected reasons, how the incentives of the Augustan social contract lured women to marriage, and second, how the deterrents of the laws against remaining unmarried similarly lured women to marriage.
From the Paper "Marriages declined, it seemed to Augustus, as a result of this widespread, societal moral failing. Augustus himself sought to stop this wave of immorality by confronting the equites. In Augustus? Legislation on Morals, Augustus is quoted chastising unmarried members of the equites: "for you see for yourselves how much more numerous you are than the married men, when you" should have produced numerous offspring by now. With a falling off in marriage comes a falling off in child production. ?"that with many dying all the time by disease and many in war it is impossible for the city to maintain itself, unless its population" continually supplied it with a steady supply of offspring. Augustus's urgings were futile attempts to bring about a change ? he needed something more."
Tags: augustus, iulia, julia, lex, maritandis, ordinibus, marriage
Abstract This paper looks at Ovid's poem Art of Love, which cheerfully preached the art of seduction and adultery. Eventually Augustus, the ruler of Rome, regarded Ovid as a threat to his moral regime and exiled the poet in 8 C.E. This paper looks at "Art of Love" and examines how Ovid delighted in poking irreverent fun at everything from the sanctity of Roman marriage to the serious consequences of adultery instituted by the Augustan reforms, and how this was considered subversive to Augustan reform.
From the Paper "Augustus greatly preferred the poetry of his patron poets, specifically Virgil and Horace. Ovid, however, scorns Virgil's Aeneid, an epic poem portraying a panoramic history of Rome and its destiny. The hero, Aeneas, was driven by his piety, that is, his duty towards the gods and his devotion to his father. Ovid exhibits his rebellious intentions by mocking the traditional aspects of an epic poem. For example, Virgil begins the Aeneid by summoning the Muses and asking for their guidance in his telling of the tale. Ovid, on the other hand, does not abide by this custom; instead he grants himself credit for having previous knowledge on the subject of his writing. He states his work is clearly "based on experience: what I write, believe me, I have practiced" (Ovid 167). Thus, Ovid obviously states he has no need for the aid of the Muses, at the same time taunting Augustan tradition."
Abstract This paper looks at the Praetorian Guard, the personal guard force of the Roman emperors, which has become a byword for the ability of a bodyguard to control and ultimately to elevate or depose, the person whom it is supposed to guard. It examines how it was the only military force that had the potential to control its imperial masters. In particular it examines its role under the reign of the Julio-Claudians and how they were able to complete the marginalization of the Senate in favor of the Julio-Claudian family.
Outline
The Problem of Armies
Alternative Possible Solutions
Princeps and Imperator
The Roman Army: From Militia to Caesarism
The Augustan Solution
The Praetorian Guard: Organization and Mission
The Praetorian Guard in Augustan Security Strategy
The Praetorian Guard and the Emperors
Conclusion
From the Paper "Historians speak of the earlier period of the Roman Empire as the Principate, but it is fair to say that as a primary title for Augustus' successors it fell into relative abeyance at an early date. Augustus survived as a general term of respect, to become a formal title for a "senior" emperor under the system of divided imperial authority under Diocletian. Caesar, originally a family name, also survived as a general title of respect, and ultimately gave rise to Tsar in Russian and Kaiser in German. But it is emperor, from the military title Imperator, that became the imperial title par excellence."
Abstract Taking Horace's "Carmen Saeculare" as its theme, this paper considers the poem's role in the cultural developments of the Augustan period, particularly those around the year 17 BCE. Specifically, the paper gives attention to the interrelationships between Horace's work and the social, political, ideological, and visual culture of the Augustan age, demonstrating how the "Carmen Saeculare" was not merely a response to the new era, but also actively helped shape it.
From the Paper "The ludi saeculares are rooted in an old Etruscan tradition, which maintained that the life of a people or nation was cyclical. This concept is linked to the idea of a greater renewal; when an older generation has passed away, a new generation, a new age, rises up to take its place. Inasmuch as Augustus had been spearheading a complex program to radically transform Rome since he had "freed the republic oppressed by the tyranny of a faction," whereby he was reshaping the Roman political, visual, and religious landscape, it is not surprising that the ludi saeculares appealed to him as an effective tool to further this process. Thus, the Secular Games should not be seen as the starting point of the nascent golden age, but rather, a significant milestone along the road that added to the process of ideological transformation that was well under way even before Actium. "
This paper looks at the historical significance of the rake in Restoration drama, focusing on 'The Country Wife' by William Wycherley and Alexander Pope's "The Rape of the Lock".
Abstract In this article, the writer analyses the characters of the rake and the coquette, as depicted in Restoration drama and Augustan literature. The writer discusses that on the surface, the authors seem to be promoting licentiousness and knavery through these characters. However, according to the writer, it is also possible to view these depictions as reactionary to Puritanism, and therefore defining the emergence of a new age. Thus, the rake and the coquette, as depicted in Restoration drama and Augustan literature, are not true villains, but have a sympathetic aspect. The works studied are Wycherley's 'The Country Wife' and Pope's "The Rape of the Lock".
From the Paper "To call such figures anti-heroes would be too simplistic. A more complete account would be to depict the Restoration rake, as well as the coquet, as instruments of reaction against the excesses of Puritanism. In this sense it is not pure evil that is projected, rather we should see such depictions as reflecting the quest for individual liberty and control. At the time the evolution of European society was in the direction of increasing individualism, a trend which was reflected in literature. In many respects literature itself was agent in the evolution. The literary rake and coquet figures were, from this point of view, instrumental in defining and furthering individualism."
Abstract The paper summarizes the main points of the book and critiques the author's effectiveness at connecting Macaulay's life experiences to his approach to writing. Influences on Macaulay's development as a writer of history, such as his family and upbringing, the intellectual era he grew up in, and his psychological development are examined.
From the Paper "John Clive is William R. Kenan Jr. Professor of History and Literature at Harvard University, and he brings his knowledge of both history and literary style to bear in analyzing the life and historical writings of Thomas Babington Macaulay in his book Macaulay: The Shaping of the Historian. The approach considers the works of Macaulay in terms of what they reveal about the forces that shaped them, including the family situation of Macaulay, the intellectual currents of the time, and Macaulay's psychology, showing how these forces interacted to cause Macaulay to think as he did and to begin to write history as he did. The book does not cover all of Macaulay's life but instead examines what the sub-title indicates--the shaping of the historian, the forces that shaped Macaulay up to 1839 when he started writing history."
Tags: political, evangelical, slave, Augustan, Whig, western, society
An essay which shows that literature creates false expectations in society as expressed by the neo-classical works of "A Tale of a Tub", by Johnathan Swift, "Vanity of Human Wishes" by Samuel Johnson and "The English Malady" by George Cheyne.
Abstract The paper shows that by providing readers with a realm based solely on the imagination, authors are able to manipulate reality through literature, creating unattainable expectations in society. The paper examines three examples illustrating this in the Augustan Age: "A Tale of a Tub" by Jonathan Swift, "The Vanity of Human Wishes", by Samuel Johnson, and "The English Malady" by George Cheyne. The paper describes how each work uses a different mode to express and effectively critique the inflated significance placed on intellect and the written word that both caused and resulted from the print explosion of the neo-classical period. It shows how all three writers voice a realization that the materialistic Empire was falling into a downward spiral from the spiritual and moral decay initiated by the overindulgence in the luxuries of excess.
From the Paper "In section two of this work, Swift uses the metaphor of three brothers who abandon the principles of their father's will at the whim of current fashion to convey the movement of literature from its classical roots to the image based ?tailor deity.? As the brothers deface the coats, that were the only legacy left to them by their father, they are metaphorically distorting classical literature which was their predecessors sole method of preserving their wisdom for posterity. Therefore, any reader coming into the sphere of this type of influence would be accepting knowledge with no basis in the accepted archetype or tradition of human understanding."
Abstract The paper shows that while Boswell's "The Life of Samuel Johnson" is somewhat jaded by personal benevolence, Boswell was more in tune with Johnson's flaws than, for example, his own. It shoows that between his self-praise and esteem for Johnson, James Boswell manages to provide the reader with instances that truly reveal a complete portrait of the great writer and give a glimpse into the wit, intellect and wisdom of Samuel Johnson.
From the Paper "The selection from "The Life of Samuel Johnson" by James Boswell must be interpreted contextually as it is relayed from the perspective of Boswell who clearly throughout the piece voices obvious bias in favor of his subject. Boswell's own arrogance is another glass through which the biography is conveyed and a significant portion of the text is devoted to that. However, there are certain instances, particularly in the quotes he records, where Boswell seems to truly capture the essence of Johnson's personality. Samuel Johnson is described as a somewhat liberal Christian who, although he holds high regard for the knowledge of the Ancients, lives his life in a style more befitting the Moderns of the day."
Tags: 17th, augustan, british, classical, enlightenment, literature
Abstract This paper looks at the history of Roman portrait statues, their characteristics, and what influenced the development of this art. The paper describes several famous statues and the emphasis on realism and idealism that can be seen in the artwork.
From the Paper "During the period of crisis in the Roman Republic when the Greek influence on art became increasingly strong, Roman art began to emerge as an entity in itself. In 146 B.C.E., a sculptural style came into being that is generally known as Greco-Roman, a term which indicates that the two styles cannot be readily separated from each other. Much of the original sculpture of this period was produced by Greek immigrant artists, but the growing Roman fascination with individual traits of personality is apparent in their portrait sculpture, a field in which the Romans made one of their most original contributions and in which they achieved a very typical, uncompromising and often flattering realism. But the idealism of Greek art continued to captivate the Romans, for great numbers of Greek statues stood in the Roman forums and in both public and private buildings."
Abstract This paper explains that, after the Stone Age, the earliest known Bronze Age culture of Europe and the Mediterranean was the Minoan, an ancient civilization on what is now Crete in the Mediterranean prior to classical Greek culture. The author points out that the advances in building construction led to the widespread use of the arch by the Romans and to the invention of durable cements and concrete for structures that have survived to the present times. The paper clarifies that, although Rome possessed a collection of tribute-states for centuries before the autocracy of Augustus, the pre-Augustan state conventionally is described as the Roman Republic; the difference between the Roman Empire and the Roman Republic lies primarily in the governing bodies and their relationship to each other.
From the Paper "In discussing history over such great spans of time, historians rely on what is known as the classic three-age system. The system divides early human history into three distinct phases based upon the level of technology developed and the materials used in forming tools. These three ages and their exact placement in time vary according to geographic region; some regions developed the use of bronze and iron before others. Indeed, there are still Stone Age cultures extant on the planet, although that is becoming more and rarer as the years pass. Other ages than the ones mentioned are used by archaeology to delineate "sub-ages" that distinguish when a particular material (usually a metal) began to be used in tool-making and industry (examples include the Copper Age, the Silver Age, or the Gold Age)."
Abstract The paper begins by emphasising the importance of Book VI of Virgil's "Aeneid" to the epic as a whole and sketching Aeneas' more mature character at the start of the book. It discusses his meetings with old acquaintances in the underworld and the effect of these on him. After dealing with the comparisons to Homer and discussing the "Augustan propaganda" label, it analyses the message of the Show of Heroes and its inspiring effect on the hero.
From the Paper "Furthermore, the most effective example of ad hominem poetry is the sorrowful and slightly speech-deflating lament for Marcellus in lines 868-886, Augustus' own adopted son. The eulogy for him would have commemorated his recent death in battle and been especially effective in impressing and moving Augustus (his sister Octavia, Marcellus' mother, reportedly fainted when the passage was recited). In literary terms, the dramatic, emphatic mention of Marcellus would have set up the later deaths of other such young, valiant warriors such as Euryalus and Pallas, and even would have heightened the pathos of their deaths with reflected glory and sympathy."
Abstract This paper, which focuses primarily on how Henry Fielding depicts English society in the 18th century in his novel "Joseph Andrews", is broken up into four parts, beginning with a look at the author and the context of the book - political, social and religious. The second part of the book has to do with Joseph Andrews in relation to other texts of the period. The third part is entirely focused on Fielding's moral society and the fourth takes into consideration the problem of language as related to society.
Author and Society: Reading Beyond the Text
The Prism or the Mirror: Depicting 18th Century Society
Fielding's Moral Society
Language and Society
From the Paper "Joseph Andrews not only provides a broad panorama of 18th-century English society but it also reveals the specific viewpoint and personal involvement of its author. It is often said that what prompted its writing was a reaction of "amused exasperation" at the astounding Pamela fashion. This is certainly true but the circumstances of the composition of Joseph Andrews are more complex and reach further back in time. The issues, people, and events affecting the author's private, social and intellectual life during the period moulded his vision of reality into a broader outlook that was to influence his literary taste. It would become proper to the majority of his writings. For example, Fielding's pronouncements on political, religious, or social matters would often be inspired by his own involvement in party politics, by his allegiance to some Latitudinarian or other and even by hopes of personal reward. Fielding and his characters refer to a host of actual people of every possible description - highwaymen, freethinkers, preachers, playwrights, poets, actors, and peers. Those are people the author might have met, or heard of, or read. They are the people he opposed, condemned, hated, defended, approved of, or loved. To understand how English society is represented in Joseph Andrews, it is crucial to read beyond the text in order to find the reasons for the author's attitude."
Abstract This paper considers the various ways Augustus used religion and religious beliefs to strengthen the position of his regime during the period 43 BCE - 14 CE. Focus is placed on the role of religion as an agent of social inclusion, especially for the disenfranchised social groups produced by the Augustan social and Moral Legislation. The Emperor's position and the centre of state religion and how this was achieved is also assessed, as is the impact of a number of these religious changes, notably the significance of the changing role of priesthoods.
From the Paper "Religion, religious belief and religious imagery are all core components of the Augustan regime's rise to power and exploiting such beliefs enhanced Augustus' position considerably. As with almost every aspect of the Augustan settlement with the state it is effectively a piecemeal activity and thus it is difficult for one to discuss the religious policy of Augustus, however, consideration can be given to a number of events and decisions which show the various ways Augustus used religion and religious ideas to enhance his position."
