Looking at an experiment performed involving the effects of personality characteristics on the proportionality principle of attribution and how the explanation for an event is proportional to the magnitude of the outcome of the event.
Abstract This paper describes a study which investigated attribution, specifically the proportionality principle, in 185 undergraduate students. Participants were divided into several conditions and completed questionnaires that tested; that the outcome of a scenario was appropriately rated, that the magnitude of the outcome determined the likelihood to which the cause of the event was attributed to predictable or unpredictable causes, and the extent to which personality characteristics (belief in a just world and locus of control) affected behaviour in accordance to the proportionality principle. It was hypothesized that the level of the two personality characteristics being tested would have a significant effect on behaviour, that the scenarios and magnitudes were designed appropriately, and that the magnitude of the outcome predicted how the participants would explain the event. It was found that the magnitudes of the outcomes supported our hypothesis and were successfully manipulated but that personality characteristics did not have as much of an effect on ratings as was originally proposed. These results were attributed to participants? level of cognitive satisfaction as well as typical human tendencies in logic and reasoning.
From the Paper "Social psychologists are largely interested in how humans explain the causation of a behaviour or an event. Making a judgement on behaviour is essentially making a claim as to the causation of the behaviour and this is commonly known as making an attribution. Heider (1958), who was the first to officially propose the idea of a person bias, suggested that humans attribute most behaviour to personality rather than to situational causes. The person bias, now known as the fundamental attribution error, is both a useful and harmful characteristic of humans; it allows for easy formation of a mental model of an individual's personality to occur. Often, however, during the formation of this model, situational causes are ignored, and negative characteristics are attributed wrongfully to an individual's personality when in fact, the exhibited behaviour was more a product of the environmental circumstances. A more recent, and less researched proposal involving attribution is the proportionality principle. This suggests that humans have the tendency to seek explanations for behaviour or events that are equal in magnitude to the outcome of the event, even if this is not the most logical explanation. For example, McCauley and Jacques (1979) found that important events with drastic outcomes, such as presidential assassinations are attributed for causes equally as important or drastic."
Tags:attribution, belief, control, just, locus, world
Abstract The paper discusses Fitz Heider's attribution theory and looks at how Harold Kelley's covariation model and Edward E. Jones' and Keith Davis' correspondent inference theory have advanced this theory. The paper explains how these theorists have extended the attribution theory's scope and increased our understanding of human behavior. The paper further shows how our current understanding of attribution theory enables better decision-making and conflict resolution through increasing our understanding of the self and other people.
Outline:
Introduction
Identifying and Explaining Human Behavior
Conclusion
From the Paper "Attribution theory was first introduced by Fitz Heider as a method to evaluate how individuals perceive their behavior and that of other people. In The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (1958), for example, Heider states that human behavior is determined by either internal or external factors, which means that "We tend to attribute the successes of others and our own failures to external factors ... [while also tending] to attribute our own successes and failures of others to internal factors" (12Manage.com, 2008). This concept, furthermore, has remained a fundamental element in current contribution theory. Nevertheless, other researchers have advanced Heider's theory by developing theories models such as Correspondence Inference Theory and the Covariation Model, while researchers, such as Kelley (1967) have identified further elements. These factors, therefore, contribute the most to current understanding of how human beings explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior."
Tags: Heider, causality, self-perception, correspondent, inference, covariation, model
A definition of the exceptional attribute of leadership and how a leader can synchronize the many factors that support the attribute, in an organization.
Abstract This paper defines and examines the exceptional attribute of leadership that galvanizes entire organizations toward a common goal. It describes the supporting concepts for this exceptional attribute of leadership and looks at how a leader can synchronize these many factors in an organization, while at the same time concentrating on fulfilling the original vision.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Defining Exceptional Leadership as Fulfilling a Shared Vision
Creating Ownership of the Vision
Summary
From the Paper "The most exceptional leadership trait is the innate ability to define a vision for an organization, then motivate, mentor and guide employees through example to be completely committed to fulfilling it. There are many aspects to this organizational trait that contribute to how exceptional it is. First, there needs to be a strong sense of trust and transparency that the leader engenders through being authentic and passionately committed to the vision. Only if a leader takes this route for the fulfillment of their vision will they have a chance of overcoming resistance to change. In addition, this exceptional leadership trait also requires a high level of collaboration between departments and divisions including the synchronizing of many different strategies and programs at the same time. For all these aspects of leadership that defines and fulfills visionary accomplishment, it's clear this attribute is the most critical in the creation and management of an organization."
Abstract For fifteen years date rape has been a recognized problem in the United States. Initially, it is defined and its occurrence levels analyzed. Subsequently, attribution theory is examined as a causal factor. Finally, potential programs to reduce date rape based on the attribution theory are introduced.
Abstract The paper explores three of Steve Covey's "Seven Habits of Effective People," in relation to a material manager's position at a major hospital. The paper then looks at three other leadership attributes; influence, power/coercion and consultation. The paper discusses how effective leadership in the materials management department translates into a higher quality of patient care.
Outline:
Leadership Attributes Conclusion
From the Paper "The healthcare industry as a whole has an ethical responsibility to provide quality service for the population that they serve. They must make certain that they strive to achieve the highest level of quality possible. People's lives depend on them. Even if they are not directly involved in patient care, their job must be done with integrity and ethics. The materials manager is responsible for making certain that everyone on the healthcare team has what they need when they need it. This is perhaps more crucial in the hospital setting than in any other industry. Lives depend on the supplies needed for their treatment."
Abstract This paper explores individual differences in personal attributes and examines organizations or societies that have faced the unique challenges diversity brings. The paper discusses the challenges for organizational managers in identifying and understanding how differences impact the workplace and then explores what motivating factors create job satisfaction and group cohesion.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Attitudinal Differences
Value Systems
Personality Differences
Ethics
Cultural Differences
Conclusion
From the Paper "Organizations that are receptive and responsive to diversity are more likely to adapt to the challenges they will continue to face in the growing global market. As time passes, the marketplace will become more complex, customers will be introduced to new international products, services, and opportunities, and access to this broadened world will become easier and faster. At the same pace, individual differences in the workplace will become the norm and evolve into larger diverse group compositions. Organizations must prove in the global market that they can thrive in diverse conditions and possess the knowledge, adaptability, and capacity to face these challenges boldly. A starting point is with those that provide direct services to clients. Organizations must grasp individual motivational factors within the diverse work environment to more holistically optimize employee satisfaction, customer service, and productivity."
Abstract This paper introduces and analyzes the topic of personality and gender. Specifically, it discusses whether men and women have typical personality attributes or not. It examines how men and women certainly do have typical personality attributes and how research shows these attributes begin early in our lives. It looks at how the differences between men and women are not simply a matter of gender since men and women look at things differently, react differently and enjoy unique personalities with diverse attributes. It shows that while there are always exceptions to every rule, for the most part, men and women enjoy distinct personality traits and this is part of what makes our relationships with each other so demanding and yet so rewarding.
From the Paper "The topics of personality and gender have long been studied, and many findings indicate like it or not, there are specific differences between genders when it comes to personality. Men and women share many thoughts and ideas, but there are distinct differences between many men and women in their personalities. One researcher suggests new names for masculinity and femininity: "Spence has suggested that a more accurate label for masculinity is instrumentality (which reflects autonomy, dominance, and assertiveness); likewise a more accurate label for femininity is expressiveness (which reflects empathy, nurturance, and interpersonal sensitivity)" (Wang, Heppner and Berry 245). Many experts believe many of our gender differences begin when we are young, from the games we play to the way we learn in the classroom."
Abstract The paper compares the attribution theory and the altruism and the bystander effect theory, which are both concerned about influences on behavior. The paper explains how the attribution theory is basically concerned with how other people as observers see the behavior, while the bystander effect theory focuses on the bystander who acts or who does not act. The paper shows how although these two theories are very different, they can be used together.
Outline:
Introduction
Attribution Theory
Altruism and the Bystander Effect Theory
Attribution Theory and Bystander Effect Theory Compared
Strengths and Weaknesses
Conclusion
From the Paper "Attribution refers to assumptions about why people behave as they do (Rathus, 2007). Attribution is a matter of looking at other people's motives and traits for explanations of their behavior. There are two types of attribution. The first is dispositional attribution and sees people's behavior in terms of their personality and of these people having free will. The second type is situational attribution which sees human behavior as resulting from social factors (Rathus, 2007). In our society, people usually blame the person instead of social conditions so that dispositional attribution is the most common form."
Abstract This paper discusses that attributes like sexual orientation, gender expression and sex identity are expressed along a continuous spectrum in contrast to conventional "either/or" constructs of these attributes. The author points out that these "either/or" constructs can be confining and psychologically harmful. The paper maintains that these attributes run a range of expression and seldom fit within social norms that attempt to define them.
From the Paper "Sex is generally a term that denotes anatomy and other biological considerations like chromosomes and hormones. Gender is generally a term that denotes appearance, behavior, roles and identity. Many people consider there to be two sexes."
Abstract The paper discusses attribution theories that argue that people look for another's attributes to explain their patterns of behaviour and highlights the concerns raised with this theory. The paper then discusses the theory that focuses on the use of social stereotypes in interpersonal interaction and explains the behavioural strengthening process employed by perceivers that adds to the self-fulfilling nature of the stereotype. The paper concludes that even the attribution theory is little more than a stereotype as we rely on our inferred qualities, and not the true situation, to make judgements.
From the Paper "With regard to impression formation and social interaction, we find two key theoretical areas promoting alternative cognitive and behavioural processes. It is noted that both theoretical approaches are not without their criticisms, but that they also approach the process of dyadic impression formation in subtly different ways.
"The first of these theories are 'attribution theories', in which it is argued, within social interactions participants are continually (albeit, perhaps subconsciously) looking for causation of behaviour in the target partner and from these attributes, inferring the qualities of said person to explain their patterns of behaviour. Participants then assess the situational factors they are in and then 'adjust those inferences' (Gilbert et al. 1988: p733). (e.g., what qualities does target 'X' have that have made them act in such a way? Has the current situation forced or inhibited the actions?)"
Abstract This paper explores decision-making among venture capitalists (VCs). It discusses the factors that are common to investments by the VCs in the decision-making process and the attributes that the VC investor most desire in managers of the business venture. The paper focuses on the varied nature of these attributes. The paper contains two figures.
From the Paper "Attributes that the VC investor most desire in managers of the business venture include the following attributes: (1) Personal integrity; (2) A good record of accomplishment; (3) Realistic and able to identify and mitigate risks; (4) Hard-working and flexible with a thorough understanding of the business; (5) Flexibility; (6) leadership abilities. (Hisrich, 1994) Hisrich states that there are stated to be three components to returns: (1) There must be an exit opportunity present; (2) The investment must offer the potential for a high rate-of-return; (3) The venture must offer the potential for a high absolute return. (Hisrich, 1994) Hisrich additionally relates that the decision-making process contains six specific stages with the first being 'Origination'. The second stage is the 'VC Firm-Specific Screen' with the third stage being the 'Generic Screen'. The fourth stage is the 'First-Phase Evaluation' in which the VC begins gathering information concerning the proposal."
The following paper discusses whether it is necessary to discard notions of homosexuality as natural or inborn, and argues that lesbianism is a social construction based on meanings ascribed to it by society and the individual.
Abstract This paper argues that homosexuality, specifically lesbianism, is not a natural process. According to the author it is rather socially constructed, and understood by the meanings people attribute to it. This paper examines the cultural institutions that aid this process by reinforcing individualization through the notion of identity formation, and the search to find one's sexual identity.
From the Paper "The process of becoming is defined by the dictionary as ?1 to come to be; grow to be?2 be suitable for; suit?3 looks well on? (Gage Canadian Dictionary, 1983, 100). Formally, that is, to become means to learn how to develop, how to arrive, how to be, how to act, how to live. In other words, it is a social process. In the world we live in, full of uncertainty, fear of the unknown and a reluctance to criticize science, reason, progress, individualization and rationality, the concept of becoming has been confused with the notion of being: ?1 a person; living creature?2 life; existence?3 nature; constitution? (103). This confusion has trained us to attribute anything and everything ? including sexuality ? that concerns the ?unknown,? or that which opposes societal norms, to the scientific analysis of causation and effect. It has also trained us to ignore many of the social processes at essence of many of the issues of the world today. Essentially, humans are socially constructed. "
Examines the objectives and applications of analytic hierarchy, multicriteria attribute hierarchy and conjoint analysis processes, from a managerial perspective.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 18 sources, 1999, $ 47.95
Abstract Introduction
This research reviews three decision support systems (DSSs). The three DSS tools reviewed are analytic hierarchy process (AHP), multicriteria attribute hierarchy process (MAHP), and conjoint analysis (CA). These DSS tools are reviewed from a managerial decision maker's perspective
From the Paper "DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS: A REVIEW OF AHP, MAHP, & CA
Introduction
This research reviews three decision support systems (DSSs). The three DSS tools reviewed are analytic hierarchy process (AHP), multicriteria attribute hierarchy process (MAHP), and conjoint analysis (CA). These DSS tools are reviewed from a managerial decision maker's perspective.
Analytic Hierarchy Process
Support for repetitive decision-making functions be provided by the AHP, which more typically is used to support one-time decisions. Criteria levels needed to evaluate various sets of alternatives are classified into groups that represent intensities of a criterion. Research has found that an absolute measurement approach opens other possibilities for AHP ..."
A research proposal to analyze empirical studies of testing Pettigrew's model of the "ultimate attribution error," related to human causal explanations for events in the world.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 11 sources, 2000, $ 47.95
From the Paper "Introduction
The proposed paper will present a meta-analytic investiga-tion of empirical studies testing Pettigrew's (1979) model of the "ultimate attribution error." In a general framework paper, this report: a) explicates the general attribution model; b) describes the essential concepts associated with the ultimate attribution error; c) provides a brief review of the empirical research testing ultimate attribution error principles and postulates; and d) delineates how meta-analytic techniques will be applied to the exiting literature in the area.
Attribution Theory
As noted by Taylor, Peplau and Sears (1996), in general, attribution refers to the process by which people attempt to infer the cause of events in our world; in other words, attribution theory deals with the..."
This paper discusses the essential elements of job negotiation. It is written by a human resources manager, in the form of a guide to successfully handling a job offer.
1,260 words (approx. 5 pages), 5 sources, 2002, $ 42.95
Abstract The paper begins by listing the five main points of successful negotiating, mentioning characteristics of a successful negotiator and listing some approaches that the negotiator should take. The paper divides up issues to be discussed in an interview into four parts. Planning strategy is stated and the initial plan for negotiation is explained. The paper then looks at basic preparation for negotiating the job offer ? information to be collected, questions to prepare and negotiation style. The paper concludes with a reiteration of a good negotiator's attributes and characteristics.
From the Paper "This paper is based on Job offer negotiation that is the central topic of the paper. I am an employee in Joe Tech and Routers Company. My status here is a Human Resource manager. I have the responsibility to handle the issues related human resources. I will describe my point of views on the topic of job negotiation. The rest depends on the higher authorities to accept my proposals or to decline my proposals."
