Abstract The paper first discusses how Wendy Martyna, in her article "Beyond the 'He/Man' Approach: The Case for Nonsexist Language," argues for change towards nonsexist language since sexist language and sexist attitudes are closely connected. The paper then contrasts this to Stefan Kanfer's argument in "Sispeak: A Misguided Attempt to Change History" that a society's language will not affect its sexist attitudes. The paper asserts that Kanfer's article demonstrates an author's unwillingness to address an issue seriously. The writer agrees with Martyna that humans' beliefs, traditions, and actions are so deeply rooted in language that they cannot be anything but be affected by it.
From the Paper "A society's language is one of its most powerful distinctions. In language, a society's history and present are reflected. When the English language is considered, the language that still contains masculine nouns to describe all humans (mankind) or masculine pronouns to substitute people, men and women, it is difficult not to raise questions about English-speaking societies' attitudes towards gender and gender equity.
"The issue of sexism in language is addressed in two relatively dated articles, and the authors of these articles take opposing sides. One, Wendy Martyna, argues for change towards nonsexist language, while the other author, Stefan Kanfer, argues that changing the language is ludicrous, believing that a society's language will not affect its sexist attitudes if they are present."
Abstract This paper focuses on peer assisted learning strategies and how student attitudes affect performance in SLA. It critically evaluates five studies with a focus on how the research methodology might have been improved, what potential bias' researcher might have brought to the study, as well as the implications of the studies themselves. The articles are; "Negotiation for Meaning and Peer Assistance in Second Language Classrooms" by Pauline Foster and Amy Snyder-Ohta, "Impact of Classroom Dynamics on the Effectiveness of Recasts in Second Language Acquisition" by Frank Morris and Elaine Tarone, "Collaborative E-mail Exchange for Teaching Secondary ESL: A Case Study in Hong Kong" by Roseanne Greenfield, "Cooperation and Competition in a Korean Middle School English Class: A Case Study" by Lee Sung-Lim and "The Effects of Reciprocal Peer Tutoring on Graduate Student's Achievement, Test Anxiety, and Academic Self-Efficacy" by Bryan and Marlynn Griffin.
Outline
"Negotiation for Meaning and Peer Assistance in Second Language Classrooms"
"Impact of Classroom Dynamics on the Effectiveness of Recasts in Second Language Acquisition"
"Collaborative E-mail Exchange for Teaching Secondary ESL: A Case Study in Hong Kong"
"Cooperation and Competition in a Korean Middle School English Class: A Case Study"
"The Effects of Reciprocal Peer Tutoring on Graduate Student's Achievement, Test Anxiety, and Academic Self-Efficacy"
Conclusion
From the Paper "Peer-assisted learning is an educational concept that has long been used to actively engage students in the knowledge acquisition process, and is known by a variety of names, such as collaborative learning, cooperative learning, collective learning, learning communities, peer teaching, peer learning, peer coaching, reciprocal learning, team learning, study circles, study groups, and work groups (adapted from Gross-Davis, 1993:http://teaching.berkeley.edu/bgd/collaborative.html), which, though these terms are not interchangeable, share its most salient feature, peer-assisted knowledge acquisition, in contrast to individualistic study."
Abstract This paper discusses the importance of communication between countries and government representatives that is efficient and effective and does not require the the aid of expensive translators. The paper further argues that the only way to achieve this important and essential efficient communication is through the adoption of a universal language, which all the people of the world understand and speak. Finally, the paper contends that such a language should be an artificial language, such as Esperanto, because it is politically neutral and not linked to any specific country, culture, or political ideology; is easier to learn than any other language; and is well-developed enough as a language to fulfill the action of communication for all purposes. A complete outline and an annotated bibliography is included with the paper.
From the Paper "In the era of globalization and increase of interaction between the global population, the importance of an international language increases. The numbers reported by Kep Enderby, the author of "The Problem of Language In International Affairs," and a former government minister and judge, support this argument. Enderby informs readers that the world's 5.2 billion people speak 3,000 different world languages and 7,000 dialects (par. 2). As global cooperation is necessary, thousands of people from across the world attend over 2,000 international conferences a year (par. 26). Since they do not have a common language, at least four different languages are officially used, with translators still needed (Enderby par. 33). People and governments do not have a common language, and this results in misunderstandings, waste of time and waste of money. In the age where all countries are connected and dependant on one another, and where representatives of governments have to meet regularly and often, it is essential that communication between them is efficient and not requiring the aid of expensive translators. The only way to achieve this important and essential efficient communication is through the adoption of a universal language which all the people of the world understand and speak. Furthermore, a universal language will have the practical objective of giving all people, from all countries, a global identity. Most people agree with this idea but disagree on whether this universal language should be a natural language such as English, or an artificial one such as Esperanto. Although many people favor the adopting of English as an international language, believing that it is an obvious choice because it is already a popular and widely spoken second language, that is easy to learn, it is not a good alternative. The best choice for an international language is an artificial one like Esperanto because it is politically neutral, not linked to any specific country, culture or political ideology, is easier to learn than any other language, and is well-developed enough as a language to fulfill the action of communication for all purposes. However, the success of adopting Esperanto as a "lingua humana," like Gardner Ralph White calls it in "Towards the Construction of A Lingua Humana," (113) is greatly dependant upon its introduction into the educational systems of countries as a second language and the chances for its success are poor."
An analysis of how we learn a second language and how the process of teaching a second language has changed in the past and may still change in the future.
Abstract This paper discusses some of the issues and processes addressed in studies of second language acquisition. It looks at the changes that teaching a second language has undergone over time and what can be expected in the future. The paper describes the basic issues of how we learn a second language and how we might facilitate the process in the future.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Review of Literature
Conclusion
From the Paper "Eckman, Highland, Lee, Mileham, and Weber (1995) point out that teaching of a second language has had different supports over the last few decades. It at first relied heavily on linguistic theory and on theories of learning, and in the 1960s and 1970s, teachers were trained in contrastive analysis and were often expected to write a contrastive analysis of a portion of the grammars of two languages, based on then-prevalent theories of language teaching. When the theoretical basis was shown to be inadequate, teaching based heavily on this model stopped. There was no concerted effort to evaluate the model. Teachers were then taught that repetition, drills, and memorization of dialogues were unnecessary."
The following paper examines the theories of bilingualism and multilingalism, language acquisition and language learning, making reference to a number of case studies.
Abstract The following paper examines the theories on language acquisition and looks at the useful distinction between acquisition and learning. The writer also comments on approaches and methods to teaching second and foreign languages. Lastly the writer comments on interference as a factor in language learning.
Table of Contents
Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Diglossia
First Language Acquisition
Using a text-mapping device to depict the important stages in first-language acquisition
Theories on how language is acquired
Innateness
Cognition
Input
Approaches and methods to teaching second and foreign languages Interference as a factor in language learning.
From the Paper "Diglossia is the coexistence of two forms of the same language in speech community. The one form will often be the literary or prestige dialect, and the other one can be a dialect commonly spoken by most of the population. The term diglossia could also be used to indicate bilingualism, or the speaking of two languages by the people of the same community. An example for the first definition is the use of Dutch in Belgium. Dutch is one of the official languages in Belgium. Dutch-speaking Belgians are called the "Flemish" where the French-speaking Belgians are called "Walloons". Dutch spoken by Belgians is also referred to as "Flemish", which is not a literary form of the language, but a spoken "dialect". They are different varieties of the same language."
Abstract This paper examines the criteria for measuring early language development, the concepts associated with ascertaining a child's developmental progress, the research supporting the prevailing theories and the significant findings inherent in credible research in these areas. It discusses how all over the globe young children seem to effortlessly acquire two or more languages at one time, while some uphold the belief that children who are exposed to multiple languages too early may experience developmental language delays and/or confusion. It evaluates how scientific research has attempted to examine whether young bilinguals can ascertain that they are acquiring two separate and distinct languages early on.
Outline
Introduction
Research and Analysis
Bilingual Paradox
Bilingual Deficit Hypothesis
Unitary Language System Hypothesis
Bilingual Advantage Hypothesis
Differentiated Language System Hypothesis
Vocabulary Development
The MacArthur CDI
Linguistic Milestones
Lexical Identifiers
Neutrals
Translation Equivalents
Interlocutor Sensitivity
Language Choice
Codemixing
Parental Discourse Strategies
Early Constraints
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "The line of thought that resembles popular opinion about whether or not children should be raised bilingual from birth is called the "Bilingual Paradox". It is a paradox because there are conflicting contemporary theories about whether or not it is the preferred method of introducing two languages. While much research shows that, by several measures, children who are exposed to two languages simultaneously between the ages of zero and three achieve major milestones within the same timeframe and with similar results as monolinguals, the contemporary line of thought has been to teach a child one language early on, reserving the introduction of a second language for the later school years. The thinking associated with the latter opinion is that introducing two languages early on will confuse the child, or that the child will be disadvantaged in mastery of one or both languages. There are, however, steps parents can take early on based on proven research to give their child an advantage in learning language skills. Methodologies, tools, timing mechanisms and support strategies have been developed through testing and observation that aids children in successful and timely language development, specifically in the adoption of multiple languages."
Abstract This paper explains that communicative competence is made up of four competence areas: Linguistic, which is knowing how to use the language's grammar, syntax and vocabulary; sociolinguistic, knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately; discourse, knowing how to interpret the larger context and to construct a coherent whole and strategic, knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns by working around gaps in one's knowledge of the language. The author points out that communicative language teaching (CLT) began because educators and linguists were dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. The paper stresses that communicative language teaching places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions.
Table of Contents
Communicative Competence
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Principles and Characteristics of CLT
Communicative Activities
Teacher's Roles in Communicative Language Teaching
Implementation of CLT in ESL and EFL Countries
From the Paper "Other research studies focus on the difficulty attributed to the English as a first language environment. In 1996, studies by Stapleton pointed out how Confucianism as a belief system appears to be in tension with underlying notions of communicative language teaching. In these studies, Stapeton examined the theory that Confucianism establishes the superior status and knowledge of the teacher over that of the students, thus elevating the role of the teacher above the students. In 1998, Li studied teaching and learning in China, concluding that local conditions seem to be detrimental to communicative language teaching methodology."
This paper discusses the role that culture plays on language development and looks at the different stages, and outward effects that culture has on language.
Abstract This paper discusses language and the role of culture within learning. The paper asserts that the culture and environment a child is exposed to during the cultivation of language plays a key role in the development of his or her unique language facility. Specifically in this paper, the author opens by defining the two main schools of thought, the Nativist (or Hereditarians) and the Interactionists (or Environmentalists), as well as the Interactionists, asserting that the one similarity between each view is the need for social interaction either as a learning tool or an activation device. The paper goes on to discuss the stages of development throughout life and the concrete language development within each stage. Additionally, the paper assesses how the effects of culture on language are outwardly visible, for example through the act of translation or through the learning of additional languages. Finally, the paper concludes that throughout all of this, it can be shown that culture and language are mutually inclusive.
From the Paper "During the ongoing stages of development, semantics, syntactic and pragmatics the individual absorbs almost unconsciously the nuances of the language and the culture he or she is raised within. The rate at which a child increases vocabulary during the semantic stage is directly proportionate to the degree of their exposure to language through active verbal interactions from those around them such as parents, siblings as well as teachers and other caregivers. During the syntax phase the more formal development of language takes place wherein the child is learning to comprehend the basic rules of grammar and can more readily convey their thoughts and ideas in complete sentences. (Broderick & Blewitt 2006:.91-93) This is where the order of language that the culture has imposed comes into play. In some languages, such as Spanish, verbs begin sentences and are often a combination of the noun-subject and the action, in English the culture has delineated the subject from the action and the correct arrangement is subject -verb -object."
Tags: stages, development, semantics, syntactic, pragmatics, language
Abstract This paper discusses the different learning styles and language proficiency in terms of second language acquisition. It provides an overview of learning styles and their effects on language skills and variables. The paper looks at learning theories and contains an outline.
Tags: Learning style, language proficiency, second language acquisition, English as a second language
Abstract This paper takes a look at the negative consequences to Americans and American society suffered as a result of minimal foreign language skills. The paper compares the minimal emphasis that the American educational system places on learning a foreign language to the much stronger emphasis placed on learning a foreign language in virtually all other countries and then explains why the American educational system would be wise to implement better foreign language programs and promote the acquisition of a foreign language.
From the Paper "The world has about 6,000 different languages, give or take a few. Linguists predict that at least half of those may have disappeared by the year 2050, which means languages are becoming extinct at twice the rate of endangered animals and four times the rate of endangered birds. Predictions are that a dozen languages may dominate the world of the future at best. (Ostler, 2002) For Americans, that's probably a good thing, since we are seemingly genetically engineered to maintain an appalling ignorance of other languages, and have narrowed down the choices we offer our young people to approximately one, Spanish, viewed by many to be the easiest foreign language to learn. It has been described in various places as having an ?impoverished vocabulary,? which means less work for Dick and Jane. The American education system so far is doing nothing to reverse the endangered languages trend, and much to promote it. In fact, there has been a criminal drop-off in foreign language study in American high schools."
Abstract This paper explains that speakers of a language such as English in which the grammatical diminutive plays an insignificant part, the fact that other languages use the diminutive so frequently can seem rather quaint. The paper goes on to say that the diminutive is a highly useful grammatical structure, one that speakers of languages without a diminutive have to compensate for in various often less than elegant ways. This paper examines the grammatical diminutive in the Romance languages.
From the Paper "For speakers of a language such as English in which the grammatical diminutive plays an insignificant part, the fact that other languages use the diminutive so frequently can seem rather quaint. But the diminutive is, in fact, a highly useful grammatical structure, one that speakers of languages without a diminutive or with an anemic diminutive, as is the case in English, have to compensate for in various (often less than elegant) ways. This paper examines the grammatical diminutive in the Romance languages. We should begin by defining the grammatical..."
Abstract The foreign language requirement has long been a component of formal education. The paper shows that several different methods exist for teaching foreign languages, including submersion and various levels of immersion teaching. In addition, foreign language teaching can be either language-driven or content-driven. This paper compares and contrasts the different methods of teaching foreign languages through immersion and submersion.
From the Paper "The language programs of the United States are based on Canadian French-language programs developed in the 1960's (Fortune and Tedick par. 3). Immersion, when used in teaching foreign languages, is the process of teaching the student using the language being taught for all or most of the school day."
Abstract This paper discusses the acquisition of language, opportunities and limitations of language and the consequences of language for individuals and society. The paper discusses the way in which language sets human being apart from other species. However, it also presents the argument that the language skills shown by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus) show that humans are not unique in this regard.
From the Paper "Acquisition of Language, Opportunities and Limitations of Language, and the Consequences of Language for Individuals and Society One of the extraordinary things about human beings is our ability to communicate via language, whether spoken or written. In fact, it is argued that this is the one thing that sets us apart from all other species. Some have argued that the "language skills" shown by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus) show that humans are not unique in this regard. (Rumbaugh and Velichkovsky) However, it is here argued that - notwithstanding the fact that chimps can learn to sign for bananas - the only species that has real language in a meaningful sense is the human species."
Abstract The paper discusses how many people think that sexist language is not a very important thing to worry about. In fact, the paper maintains that some people will accuse you of being too politically correct if you say they are using sexist language. In this essay, the writer argues that sexist language is important. There are many reasons for this, as the writer shows. Most importantly, the paper contends that sexist language helps to put women in an inferior situation in society and ending sexist language is a good beginning to end sexism.
Abstract Is language an instinct? This paper examines Michael Tomasello article, "Language Is Not an Instinct" in which he disagrees with Chomsky's theory of generative grammar. The paper explains Tomasello's argument that language is not an instinct because it has not been studied scientifically and many of the main points required for something to be an instinct do not apply to language.
From the Paper "Michael Tomasello proves that language is not an instinct and he offers alternate explanations concerning language. Language is not an instinct because it does not have a set of behavior competencies (Tomasello 1995, 132). It does not have specific expressions nor does it have species-typical sets of expression (Tomasello 1995, 133). Language has thousands of different types of expressions depending on the country, gender, ethnicity, race, etc. "
