Abstract
This paper explores the ideas of Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton about the composition of matter, which contributed to atomic theory.

From the Paper
"John Dalton's Atomic Theory

Through his study of gases, John Dalton arrived at some of the most important theoretical concepts in modern chemistry. He established a system whereby relative particle weights can be obtained from available chemical data. In addition, he devised a simple system of rules for chemical combination. Dalton also provided a framework for a system of atomic symbolism. His atomic theory is very useful for explaining a wide variety of physical and chemical phenomena.

Some have called John Dalton the father of the atomic theory of chemistry (1:83). His exact birth date is unknown. By his death in 1844 at the age 78, Dalton had devised some of the most fundamental ideas of modern chemistry (3:984). Indeed, many view the scientist as one of the founders of modern chemistry."

Abstract
The paper explains Bertrand Russel's theory of atomism, which emphasizes logical analysis and its consequences for metaphysics. The paper describes how Russel explains the structure of the external world and discusses how pluralism, rather than monism, is the logical force behind the philosophy. The paper also looks at the many arguments against Russell's theory of logical atomism.

Outline:
Introduction
The Structure of the World
Russell's Logical Atomism
Logical Atomism - Realistically Logical?
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Bertrand Russell, author of the theory of atomism, was a philosopher whose emphasis was primarily on logical analysis and its consequences for metaphysics. The traditional philosophical problem of the external world, which is based on the fact that external qualities can only be drawn inferentially, was explained by Russell (1910) as a distinction between "knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description" (Irvine, 2003). Russell's 1918 work on logical atomism was based on the argument that the world is comprised of logical atoms, which he described as "little patches of colour", and their properties (ibid). Together these properties, according to Russell, form the atomic facts which are thus combined to create logically complex objects. Therefore what is normally explained as inferred entities, such as enduring physical objects, are actually logical constructions created from immediate entities of sensation, which Russell identified as "sensibilia" (ibid)."

Tags:logic, pluralism, metaphysics, atoms, sensibilia

Abstract
The paper explains that Bertrand Russell, author of the theory of atomism, was a philosopher whose emphasis was primarily on logical analysis and its consequences for metaphysics. The paper outlines how the traditional philosophical problem of the external world, which is based on the fact that external qualities can only be drawn inferentially, was explained by Russell (1910) as a distinction between "knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description" (Irvine, 2003). The paper also explains that Russell's 1918 work on logical atomism was based on the argument that the world is comprised of logical atoms, which he described as "little patches of colour", and their properties (Irvine, 2003).

Tags:bertrand, russell, atomism

Abstract
This essay explains the basis of Quantum Mechanic Theory of the atom, which describes the behavior of electrons in atoms & molecules. The author examines this theory and provides a detailed analysis of it.

From the Paper
"The Quantum Mechanics Theory describes the behavior of electrons in atoms & molecules. Quantum Mechanics is also referred to as Wave Mechanics. The theory of quantum mechanics tells us that in the atom, electron waves are standing waves. This theory was devised by Max Planck in 1901. He stated that light is emitted by the atoms of a luminous body in separate packets or bundles of energy called quanta or photons. One or more of the electrons revolving about the nucleus of an atom can be made to jump from one orbit to another. As they do so one or more photons are emitted. This energy radiates from the luminous body as electromagnetic waves. The energy content of a photon determines the length and frequency of the wave. Wave mechanics views the probability of finding an electron at a given point in space."

Tags:chemistry, physics

Abstract
The atom is the very smallest unit of matter or the smallest part of a chemical element that still contains all the parts of that element. Atoms are the very heart of our chemical elements, and harnessing the atom has been a long, historic process. This paper shows that atoms have been known about for a while in history, but it was not until the 20th century that scientists learned how to harness the power of the atom and use it effectively.

From the Paper
"Today, scientists have uncovered much more information about the elements that make up the atom, including baryons, quarks, and antiparticles. Because we understand more about the composition of the atom, we can use it more effectively. For example, scientists often use protons in particle accelerators, (sometimes called "atom smashers"), which create beams of actively charged particles and then point them toward targets. The energy created by these accelerators help scientists study the nucleus of the atom, and create the nuclear energy that will create new particles."

Tags:Hantaro, Nagaoka, Rutherford, Bohr

Abstract
Nuclear fusion is a type of nuclear reaction in which two atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy.This paper considers the theory of nuclear fusion and looks at the structure of atom and the great formula of Einstein. It then examines the physics of nuclear fusion processes and the production of energy. The paper concludes with an examination of the uses and benefits of nuclear fusion.

Outline:
Theory
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion Development
Benefits of Nuclear Fusion

From the Paper
"In an inertial confinement fusion reaction, energy is rapidly applied to the surface of the fusion capsule which causes the solid surface to vaporize or turn into a gas. Upon vaporization this material swiftly moves away from the remaining capsule material in a racket-like manner. This projection of gas away from the surface creates shock waves that move through the capsule, compressing and heating the interior hydrogen isotopes. As the materials fuse they give off energy that causes the other hydrogen nuclei to heat up and begin to expand. Enough energy is produced in thermonuclear fusion to suck the paint of 1 city block of houses and give all of the residents permanent orange Afros. The sun is an example of thermonuclear fusion in nature. Nuclear fusion is also what powers the rest of the stars in the solar system. "

Tags:energy, electrons, neutrons, atom

Abstract
The paper argues the scientific big bang theory and order in the development of our universe. It describes the hierarchy of events and the Great Chain of Being theory. In particular, it discusses the electron atom nucleus universe expands origin universe Big Bang primordial ball creation overall order. This paper is well formatted with intelligent depth to the argument of the creation of life and our planet.

From the Paper
"Electrons circle the nucleus of an atom. Untold trillions of atoms collide together and explode. The universe expands. Electrons race down the copper wires of an electric cable. The sun shines. Leaves digest the sunlight, produce nutrients, live, grow, die, and fall to the ground. The wind bears aloft the leaves, scatters them over earth and sea. The tide moves them, pushes them up into rivers where at last they settle into the mud. Salmon swim upstream; lay their eggs on the muddy bottoms of lakes and rivers. A powerful grizzly bear nuzzles the icy water of a mountain brook. His great paw sweeps into the water and catches a darting salmon. Men come; establish a city on the banks of the stream. They drive the bear off. Their boats coast upon the surface of the sparkling water. Nets plumb the frigid depths, resurface filled with salmon. The men eat the salmon. The salmon are digested, turned into fodder for a thousand other creatures and into the food that builds civilizations. Digested again, these minute particles break down into molecules, and the molecules into atoms. A lone atom floats off in the vast emptiness of space. Electrons circle the atom's nucleus. These are cycles, yes, but wherein lays their ultimate origin? Is there a connection between all that makes up the universe? Is there a plan?"

Tags:electron, atom, nucleus, universe, expands, origin, universe, big, bang, primordial, ball, creation, overall, order

Abstract
The following paper discusses Friedrich Kekule's interest in chemistry and examines how he came to be the originator of the structure theory for his study on chemical bonds. However this paper also examines how Kekule's formula for the structure of benzene was wrong. This paper provides the reader with the correct formula and explains what Kekulu's formula was missing.

From the Paper
"The charred body of a woman is found and the trial began. Friedrich Kekule testified before the grand jury. Many believed her death was caused by combustion from overdrinking of alcohol. However, Justus von Liebig and Kekule believed otherwise. This testimony incriminated a servant who had stolen from the woman. This began the turning point in Kekule's life as he pursued his new interest of chemistry and the beginning formula of benzene (Lienhard 1).

"Friedrich August Kekule has been said to be the originator of the structure theory and for his study on chemical bonds. Kekule was born on September 7, 1829 in Germany. Kekule attended school at Darmstadt. He was intelligent and spoke French, Italian, and English. Kekule in 1847 attended the University of Giessen and studied architecture (Ulearntoday 1)"

Tags:chemistry, structure, double, bonds, carbon, hydrogen, atoms, chemical, valence

Abstract
The paper explores the duality of the universe via the recent discovery of a sub-atomic meson particle. The paper explains that this discovery lays the groundwork for further discoveries which may or may not validate the Standard Theory which is the universally accepted, but nevertheless not completely proven, theory of the creation of the universe.

From the Paper
"The recent discovery of the B-sub-s meson, a bizarre particle which travels between the real world of matter and the spooky realm of antimatter 3 trillion times a second, may open the door to a new era of physics, Fermilab researchers announced. The monumentally precise technology developed to measure the meson's back and forth dashes also may open the way to discovering a new family of fundamental particles and possibly a set of new forces that could be harnessed for technological applications, physicists suggested. Particles that bridge the worlds of matter and antimatter, such as the..."

Tags:physics, matter, anti, matter