Abstract
This paper explains that there are several different types of atomic force microscopes, which are used at very close ranges and without a lens, that operate by measuring a local property, whether height, optical absorption or magnetism, by using a probe placed very close to the sample. The author points out that AFMs constitute a subset within the larger group known as scanning-probe microscopes, which can utilize many different types of tips. The paper relates that the accuracy of the AFM depends on the state of the tip and a worn tip can produce blurred images resulting in the recent development of an automatic tip evaluation system showing when the tip needs to be replaced.

From the Paper
"Kevin Kjoller considers how to measure the true resolving power of an atomic force microscope, noting first that resolution means the same as it does for an optical microscope, meaning the minimum distance between two adjacent objects that a microscope can identify as separate. Kjoller complains that most manufacturers substitute some meaningless term for resolution and ignore the reality. Several issues need to be considered, such as the size of the probe and three types of limiting noise, electrical, mechanical, and acoustic. Kjoller defines electrical noise as "the sum of the thermal and operating noise from all components inside the AFM electronics, including any noise due to cross-talk and less-than-optimal grouping.""

Tags:close, tip, noise, mechanical, scanning-probe

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses that the atomic bomb has dramatically changed the world we live in and will continue to strike fear into every day civilians. The writer looks at the use of the atomic bomb in the Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 and discusses the moral implications of the use of the atomic bomb.

From the Paper
"The making of the atomic bomb was inevitable but the use of the atomic bomb was a mistake that will never be forgotten. The atomic bombings of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 ended the bloodiest war in human history, but Japan was on the verge of surrendering anyway, so there was no military justification for the use of these horrific weapons."

Tags:atomic, bomb, issues

Abstract
This is a detailed study describing the progression of the Manhattan Project and the invention of the atomic bomb. The "Manhattan Project" was a code name given to the efforts and collaboration of many scientists to build the first atom bomb. The author sees two major challenges that faced the team of highly capable scientists. The first was the actual production of the atom bomb. This involved actually making innovative discoveries that would revolutionize war and change man's idea of war for good. The second involved all of the ethical debates on whether or not the bomb should have actually been used in warfare. The author concludes that the building of the atomic bomb proved to be the most pivotal advance seen by science up until the early twentieth century.

From the Paper
"We have too many men of science, too few men of God. We have grasped the mystery of the atom and rejected the Sermon of the Mount...The world has achieved brilliance without wisdom, power without conscience. Ours is a world of nuclear giants and ethical infants. We know more about war than we know about peace, more about killing than we know about living..." stated General Omar N. Bradley, Chief of Staff of the United States Army in 1948, voicing the opinion, shared by many of the time, towards the building of the atomic bomb. The "Manhattan Project" was a code name given to the efforts and collaboration of many scientists to build the first atom bomb. There were two major challenges that faced the team of highly capable scientists. The first was the actual production of the atom bomb. This involved actually making innovative discoveries that would revolutionize war and change man's idea of war for good. The second involved all of the ethical debates on whether or not the bomb should have actually been used in warfare. The project lasted from 1942-1946 and cost approximately 1.8 billion dollars, which is comparable to 20 billion dollars today. The building of the atomic bomb proved to be the most pivotal advance seen by science up until the early twentieth century."

Tags:Manhattan, Project, World, War, II, atomic, bomb, invention

Abstract
This paper suggests that the development of the atomic bomb is arguably the most important technical innovation of the twentieth century. The author explains the technical achievement of the atomic bomb. The paper examines some of its socio-cultural effects, namely creating a world in which the end of all human civilization became a real possibility.

From the Paper
"There will be no argument that the 20th century had been characterized by incredible technical innovation and invention. Perhaps more so than any century previously, the 20th century was a particularly ripe period for technology. At a rapidly accelerating pace, it seemed that inventors were creating new technologies that were important - and seemingly indispensable - the world over. However, there was one specific technological development during the 20th century whose development should be understood as more important and influential than the rest."

Tags:atomic, bomb, technology

Abstract
This paper is a bibliographic essay that provides detailed descriptions of seven scholarly sources that discuss the decision to drop the initial atomic bomb on Hiroshima. First, the paper discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the materials and whether or not each one does a responsible job of exhaustively highlighting the reasons favoring the use of the bomb. It also considers the reasons opposing the use of the bomb. Overall, works by Gar Alperovitz and by Sadao Kamata and Stephen Salaff are the strongest because of the wealth of new information they provide whilst a work by Laura Hein is weak because it feigns objectivity while not being objective at all.

From the Paper
"The following paper is a bibliographic essay that provides detailed descriptions of seven scholarly sources that discuss the decision to drop the initial atomic bomb on Hiroshima. As time permits, the next several pages will discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the materials and whether or not each one does a responsible job of exhaustively highlighting the reasons favouring the use of the bomb and the reasons opposing the use of the bomb. Overall, works by Gar Alperovitz and by Sadao Kamata and Stephen Salaff are the strongest because of the wealth of new information they provide whilst a work by Laura Hein is weak because.."

Tags:atomic, bibliographic, essay

Abstract
This paper describes the atomic bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. The writer gives statistics in order to highlight the devastation. Also included is an eye-witnesses' testimony. The paper concludes by posing moral questions about the bombing of innocent civilians.

From the Paper
"It was on August 6th, in the year 1945, at 8.15 AM, Japanese time, that the United States of America dropped its first ever atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, so that its usefulness to the enemy could be completely destroyed. According to the then President of the United States, the bomb "...had more power than 20,000 tones of TNT ", and it was also infinitely more powerful than the blast power that the British Grand Slam, purportedly the largest bomb in the history of the world, had. The immediate and direct consequence of the bomb was that more than four square miles of the entire city of Hiroshima were completely and irrevocably destroyed, 66,000 people were killed instantaneously, and 69,000 more were seriously injured. Three days later, another atomic bomb, equally powerful, was dropped on the city of Nagasaki, Japan, and this bomb managed to destroy about 1.5 square miles of the city, and kill about 39,000 people, while injuring 25,000 more. The very next day, the Japanese government asked to surrender, under the 'Potsdam Declaration'. "

Tags:World, War, II, atomic, bomb, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Japan, surrender

Abstract
The paper explores the role of race in police use of force. The paper explains what is necessary force vs. excessive force and discusses the conditions under which excessive force is permissible. The paper also discusses police attitudes toward African Americans and other minorities.

From the Paper
"Few people would argue about the statement that police officers have a tough job. Law enforcement officers must deal with some of the worst problems in our society. Police also have a significant amount of discretion and power which some abuse. Critics of police abuse suggest that one of the most effective tools for dealing with police abuse of power is the existence of an independent watchdog agency empowered to handle citizen complaints and armed with enough power to publish its findings and enforce its recommendations."

Tags:The, role, of, race, in, police, use, of, force

Abstract
This paper gives an in-depth examination of the issue of force used by police officers, which has been a constant concern of the worldwide community, government, political entities and police officers for decades. According to the paper, in most cases police managers have the ability of selecting their own rules in relation to force that is used. However, the general standard is that police officers use force that is appropriate to the situation. This leads to subjective views on force and creates issues within the police department of the country that require attention.

From the Paper
"The issue of force used by police officers has been a constant concern of the worldwide community, government, political entities and police officers for decades. In most cases police managers have the ability of selecting their own rules in relation to force that is used, however, the general standard is that police officers use force that is appropriate to the situation. This leads to subjective views on force and creates issues within the police department of the country that require attention. While most police officers are not tasked with using any form of force, there is an alternative to excessive force when force is required by police..."

Tags:police, force, issue

Abstract
This essay addresses the question of what it means to say that the Canadian population is (re)produced from the perspective of Labor Force Reproduction. This process is shown to be determined by the intersection of fertility and immigration and, over time, to have shaped the economic structures of society in the interest of big business. The writer discusses that the Labor Force Reproduction model is used to explain not only how a labor force reproduces itself from generation to generation, but also how it reproduces itself on a daily basis in order to ensure the continuation of production over time.

From the Paper
"Reproduction has a number of different dimensions. There is, of course, biological reproduction by which individuals procreate. There is also social and institutional reproduction as social structures and institutions renew themselves and change over time. The value of Labor Force Reproduction as a model for social scientists is that it enables them to analyze ALL of the labor that is conducted in a given society. For example, one of the basic assumption of the Labor Force Reproduction model is that much of the labor in our society is unpaid."

Tags:force

Abstract
An analysis of deadly force in American policing including policies in different jurisdictions and departments. The paper includes an analysis of statistics and comparisons of deadly force incidents among departments with varying numbers of officers, serving in various sizes of cities -- Washington D.C., New York City.

From the Paper
"At the same time as we delegate the use of force to police officers, we expect those officers to use that force judiciously. In the guidelines for every police department there is language that states that each and every citizen's life has value. Society does not take lightly police officers' use of excessive or unnecessary force. If, in an instant heat of the moment, an officer makes the fatal decision to intentionally use deadly force, to shoot to kill, he must later justify his action. A killing by an officer, lacking jury or judge, will later be minutely scrutinized from all angles. An internal affairs investigation begins immediately after a fatal shooting. If there is public outcry that the use of deadly force was not justified, the officer will be demonized as "trigger happy". If the public and the media support the officer's action, he will be pronounced a hero. (DOJ 2002)
"Surprisingly, the technical legal definition of what constitutes deadly force varies from one police department to another. In some jurisdictions, there must be officer intent for a killing to be considered deadly force. The officer must have aimed his weapon, fired, and killed; or intentionally run over someone with his vehicle and killed; for the killing to be considered deadly force. Other jurisdictions include in their definition of deadly force, force which results in death, whether the death was intentional or not. The use of chokeholds, for example, have been banned in many jurisdictions, because of the number of deaths they cause. Likewise, the use of pepper spray, while an offender is in restraints, has caused a number of deaths, and also has been banned by many departments. The list goes on. People have died after being shot by police Tasers. The Taser, generally considered a non-lethal weapon, can in fact be lethal if used on certain people. People with drugs in their systems or those that suffer from certain medical conditions have died from being shot by the "non-lethal Taser". An officer has no way of knowing what an individual may have ingested, or an individual's medical condition before he shoots."

Tags:policing statistics, deadly force, lethal force