Abstract This paper explains that there are several different types of atomicforcemicroscopes, which are used at very close ranges and without a lens, that operate by measuring a local property, whether height, optical absorption or magnetism, by using a probe placed very close to the sample. The author points out that AFMs constitute a subset within the larger group known as scanning-probe microscopes, which can utilize many different types of tips. The paper relates that the accuracy of the AFM depends on the state of the tip and a worn tip can produce blurred images resulting in the recent development of an automatic tip evaluation system showing when the tip needs to be replaced.
From the Paper "Kevin Kjoller considers how to measure the true resolving power of an atomic force microscope, noting first that resolution means the same as it does for an optical microscope, meaning the minimum distance between two adjacent objects that a microscope can identify as separate. Kjoller complains that most manufacturers substitute some meaningless term for resolution and ignore the reality. Several issues need to be considered, such as the size of the probe and three types of limiting noise, electrical, mechanical, and acoustic. Kjoller defines electrical noise as "the sum of the thermal and operating noise from all components inside the AFM electronics, including any noise due to cross-talk and less-than-optimal grouping.""
Abstract This paper describes, in detail, three different types of microscopes and explains why a microscope is so vital to the success of the modern criminalist. The paper examines the value of hair as trace evidence, and describes the morphology of hair in detail.
From the Paper "Microscopes are vital to the job of the criminologist. Several different types of microscopes aid them in their work. Compound microscopes are light illuminated. The image seen with this type of microscope is two-dimensional. This microscope is the most commonly used in science. John Ross explains that the parameter for a compound microscope involves the power of the microscope. The power is usually engraved on the eyepiece as a number X X or X. Power is frequently misunderstood and often overstressed in the initial..."
Tags:Microscopes, confocal, dissection, electron microscope, chrged electron beam, imaging, compound microscope, hair as trace evidence, use of trace evidence to convict or to acquit Requirements: Describe in detail at least three different types of microscope
Abstract The paper explains Bertrand Russel's theory of atomism, which emphasizes logical analysis and its consequences for metaphysics. The paper describes how Russel explains the structure of the external world and discusses how pluralism, rather than monism, is the logical force behind the philosophy. The paper also looks at the many arguments against Russell's theory of logical atomism.
Outline:
Introduction
The Structure of the World
Russell's Logical Atomism Logical Atomism - Realistically Logical?
Conclusion
From the Paper "Bertrand Russell, author of the theory of atomism, was a philosopher whose emphasis was primarily on logical analysis and its consequences for metaphysics. The traditional philosophical problem of the external world, which is based on the fact that external qualities can only be drawn inferentially, was explained by Russell (1910) as a distinction between "knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description" (Irvine, 2003). Russell's 1918 work on logical atomism was based on the argument that the world is comprised of logical atoms, which he described as "little patches of colour", and their properties (ibid). Together these properties, according to Russell, form the atomic facts which are thus combined to create logically complex objects. Therefore what is normally explained as inferred entities, such as enduring physical objects, are actually logical constructions created from immediate entities of sensation, which Russell identified as "sensibilia" (ibid)."
This research paper is a description of the progression of the Manhattan Project, the undercover name for the building of the first atomic bomb by scientists.
Abstract This is a detailed study describing the progression of the Manhattan Project and the invention of the atomic bomb. The "Manhattan Project" was a code name given to the efforts and collaboration of many scientists to build the first atom bomb. The author sees two major challenges that faced the team of highly capable scientists. The first was the actual production of the atom bomb. This involved actually making innovative discoveries that would revolutionize war and change man's idea of war for good. The second involved all of the ethical debates on whether or not the bomb should have actually been used in warfare. The author concludes that the building of the atomic bomb proved to be the most pivotal advance seen by science up until the early twentieth century.
From the Paper "We have too many men of science, too few men of God. We have grasped the mystery of the atom and rejected the Sermon of the Mount...The world has achieved brilliance without wisdom, power without conscience. Ours is a world of nuclear giants and ethical infants. We know more about war than we know about peace, more about killing than we know about living...? stated General Omar N. Bradley, Chief of Staff of the United States Army in 1948, voicing the opinion, shared by many of the time, towards the building of the atomic bomb. The "Manhattan Project" was a code name given to the efforts and collaboration of many scientists to build the first atom bomb. There were two major challenges that faced the team of highly capable scientists. The first was the actual production of the atom bomb. This involved actually making innovative discoveries that would revolutionize war and change man's idea of war for good. The second involved all of the ethical debates on whether or not the bomb should have actually been used in warfare. The project lasted from 1942-1946 and cost approximately 1.8 billion dollars, which is comparable to 20 billion dollars today. The building of the atomic bomb proved to be the most pivotal advance seen by science up until the early twentieth century."
Tags: Manhattan, Project, World, War, II, atomic, bomb, invention
Abstract The paper gives a brief insight into atoms from the beginning of recognition of their existence by the ancient Greeks, to the ability today to create man-made ones. It discusses the chemical composition of atoms and how scientists can now predict their behavior with great accuracy.
From the Paper "According to existing theories and experimental results, the Big Bang took place about 12,000-15,000 million years ago. Within the first three minutes of the existence of the Universe, the light elements originated. Atoms came along after about 300,000 years and the stars and galaxies originated during the first million years. However, it took a while for humans to recognize atoms, although they were right before their eyes."
Tags: protons, electrons, neutrons, quantum, physics, nucleus, atomic, number
Abstract This paper suggests that the development of the atomic bomb is arguably the most important technical innovation of the twentieth century. The author explains the technical achievement of the atomic bomb. The paper examines some of its socio-cultural effects, namely creating a world in which the end of all human civilization became a real possibility.
From the Paper "There will be no argument that the 20th century had been characterized by incredible technical innovation and invention. Perhaps more so than any century previously, the 20th century was a particularly ripe period for technology. At a rapidly accelerating pace, it seemed that inventors were creating new technologies that were important - and seemingly indispensable - the world over. However, there was one specific technological development during the 20th century whose development should be understood as more important and influential than the rest."
Abstract This paper describes the atomic bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. The writer gives statistics in order to highlight the devastation. Also included is an eye-witnesses' testimony. The paper concludes by posing moral questions about the bombing of innocent civilians.
From the Paper "It was on August 6th, in the year 1945, at 8.15 AM, Japanese time, that the United States of America dropped its first ever atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, so that its usefulness to the enemy could be completely destroyed. According to the then President of the United States, the bomb "...had more power than 20,000 tones of TNT ", and it was also infinitely more powerful than the blast power that the British Grand Slam, purportedly the largest bomb in the history of the world, had. The immediate and direct consequence of the bomb was that more than four square miles of the entire city of Hiroshima were completely and irrevocably destroyed, 66,000 people were killed instantaneously, and 69,000 more were seriously injured. Three days later, another atomic bomb, equally powerful, was dropped on the city of Nagasaki, Japan, and this bomb managed to destroy about 1.5 square miles of the city, and kill about 39,000 people, while injuring 25,000 more. The very next day, the Japanese government asked to surrender, under the 'Potsdam Declaration'. "
Tags: World, War, II, atomic, bomb, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Japan, surrender
Abstract The paper explores the role of race in police use of force. The paper explains what is necessary force vs. excessive force and discusses the conditions under which excessive force is permissible. The paper also discusses police attitudes toward African Americans and other minorities.
From the Paper "Few people would argue about the statement that police officers have a tough job. Law enforcement officers must deal with some of the worst problems in our society. Police also have a significant amount of discretion and power which some abuse. Critics of police abuse suggest that one of the most effective tools for dealing with police abuse of power is the existence of an independent watchdog agency empowered to handle citizen complaints and armed with enough power to publish its findings and enforce its recommendations."
Tags: The, role, of, race, in, police, use, of, force
Abstract This paper explains that, in his short story, "The Use of Force", William Carlos Williams examines the justifiable application of physical force. The author points out that all of the doctor's respect appears to go to Mathilda, the "damned little brat", who had the spunk and courage to resist him all along. The paper concludes that even an apparently mild-mannered country doctor can enjoy the passionate feeling of having a strong opponent and admire the resistance.
From the Paper "The narrator inquires about a sore throat and both parents explain that the child says "her throat don't hurt her." The slightly exasperated doctor wonders if they have actually looked and discovers that they have not. Mathilda will not cooperate, though, and the doctor tries to reason with her. Attempting lamely to help, the mother says, "Come on, do what he tells you to, he won't hurt you." The doctor is disgusted that the mother used the word "hurt" and he says "I ground my teeth in disgust" at the parents bungling attempts."
Abstract The author of this paper analyzes the argument on force vs. persuasion between Thrasymachus and Socrates in Book I of Plato's "The Republic". The author shows that as their arguments escalate and change focus, Socrates ends up the victor. However his victory is somewhat marred by the very tool he uses to secure it "persuasion."
From the Paper "The evaluation of force or persuasion as a more successful means of achieving one's objectives is manifested in the intense discussions between Thrasymachus and Socrates. Thrasymachus believes that "justice is nothing else than the interest of the stronger." (202) He attempts to impress this upon the group. Socrates wishes to prove his statement wrong but knows that making a blatant statement to the contrary would provoke Thrasymachus' ire rather than prove his point so Socrates decides to employ the art of persuasion in refuting Thrasymachus' statement."
Abstract This paper examines how the African Union (AU) recognizes the right and duty of intervention in cases of war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity and how, with the creation of the African Standby Force (ASF), the AU will have both the authority and a vehicle for intervention. This paper aims to discuss both the positive and negative aspects of the ASF, as well as describe the structure and the possible alternatives for the planned implementation.
From the Paper "Territorial disputes, armed ethnic conflicts, civil wars, and the collapse of governmental authority in some states are some of the biggest threats to international peace and stability (Kent and Malan, 2003). In many cases, such threats require a quick response from a group of well-trained, well-equipped military, police and civilian experts. They must be both willing to establish a secure environment in which peace can be built, and also have a mandate and resources to protect civilians against armed conflict."
Tags: intervention, genocide, peace, keeping, forces, nato
Abstract This paper examines the perspectives of both those who believe the US decision to drop the atomic bomb on Japan was the correct decision and those who believe it was not. The paper first explains the perspective of supporters of this act in Japan who argue that use of the atomic bomb hastened the end of World War Two in Asia, which saved countless military and civilian lives. The paper then examines the perspective of others who argue that if any country other than the U.S. had dropped an atomic bomb, the American government would have accused these people of war crimes. The paper also considers the argument that the bombs' destructive force could have been demonstrated without taking so many Japanese civilian lives. The writer offers a personal opinion that this was a cowardly attack, as it wiped out entire cities of people who did not have anything to do with the war. The writer concludes that the atomic bomb may have ended the war earlier than expected, but it also introduced the world to one of the most horrific methods of warfare, which is something that can never be taken back.
From the Paper "The use of atomic bombs during World War Two is one of the most debated topics in history. These types of weapons had never been used before and they were seen as being particularly brutal. When the United States decided to bomb Japan in retaliation for the attacks on Pearl Harbor, the face of warfare was changed forever. With this new method, a single bomb could wipe out an entire city, killing all of the inhabitants at once. Furthermore, those who survived the initial blast would often wish that they did not, as radiation from the bomb caused cancer in many people, killing them in the years following the war. Since this time, many different countries have successfully developed their own versions of this weapon of mass destruction, which has led to many problems all over the globe."
Tags: World, War, Two, civilians, destruction, radiation, warfare
A look at the debate as to whether it was the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that brought an end to the war in the Pacific or whether other events ended the war.
Abstract This paper looks at both sides of the debate regarding the justification of the U.S. nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The paper attempts to answer the question of whether of not the U.S. had to drop the bombs, or if there was another way in which they could have defeated Japan. The paper looks at the options that faced President Harry Truman when he decided to use newly developed atomic energy and why he continued to use them even when he had such strong opposition from General Dwight Eisenhower, General Douglas MacArthur, and Chief of Staff Admiral Leahy.
From the Paper "On July 16, 1945, the United States of America ushered the world into a new era with the successful detonation of an atomic bomb in New Mexico. That era was the nuclear age. Less than a month later, on August 6, 1945, an atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan; the first use of a nuclear weapon against an enemy nation. There is debate as to whether the bombing of Hiroshima, and the subsequent bombing of Nagasaki on August 9th, brought an end to the war in the Pacific for Imperial Japan. Or, were the events leading up to August 6th enough to deter them from fighting any longer?"
Tags: end, world, war, ii, historians, force, atom, americans, japanese, lives, surrendered, allied
Abstract The atom is the very smallest unit of matter or the smallest part of a chemical element that still contains all the parts of that element. Atoms are the very heart of our chemical elements, and harnessing the atom has been a long, historic process. This paper shows that atoms have been known about for a while in history, but it was not until the 20th century that scientists learned how to harness the power of the atom and use it effectively.
From the Paper "Today, scientists have uncovered much more information about the elements that make up the atom, including baryons, quarks, and antiparticles. Because we understand more about the composition of the atom, we can use it more effectively. For example, scientists often use protons in particle accelerators, (sometimes called "atom smashers"), which create beams of actively charged particles and then point them toward targets. The energy created by these accelerators help scientists study the nucleus of the atom, and create the nuclear energy that will create new particles."
Abstract This paper relates that the atomic bomb has dramatically changed the world we live in and will continue to strike fear into the every day lives of civilians. The paper asserts that the making of the atomic bomb was inevitable, but the use of the atomic bomb was a mistake that will never be forgotten. The paper goes on to say that the atomic bombings of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 ended the bloodiest war in human history, but Japan was on the verge of surrendering anyway, so there was no military justification for the use of these horrific weapons. The writer concludes that if humanity fails to break free from the vicious cycle of wars, atomic bombs will be used again, life on earth will end someday in one final conflagration and the final page of human history will never be written because no one will be left alive to write it.
From the Paper "Despite the fact that most Americans in 1945 considered these atomic attacks fully justified and felt no remorse for the massive death and destruction inflicted upon Hiroshima and Nagasaki, most Americans today have very different attitudes about the atomic bombings, and feel regret, shame, and revulsion when they think about the atomic attacks. Most of them believe that although the making of the atomic bomb was inevitable, it was a mistake to use atomic bombs against Japan."
"The Manhattan Project was established early in World War II because it was learned that Nazi Germany was intent upon building an atomic bomb. This political factor, combined with the relentless advance of scientific discoveries, made the development of atomic weapons inevitable. Consequently, a race to develop atomic bombs began, for they would be the ultimate weapon and whichever nation possessed them would be impossible to defeat."
