Abstract
The atom is the very smallest unit of matter or the smallest part of a chemical element that still contains all the parts of that element. Atoms are the very heart of our chemical elements, and harnessing the atom has been a long, historic process. This paper shows that atoms have been known about for a while in history, but it was not until the 20th century that scientists learned how to harness the power of the atom and use it effectively.

From the Paper
"Today, scientists have uncovered much more information about the elements that make up the atom, including baryons, quarks, and antiparticles. Because we understand more about the composition of the atom, we can use it more effectively. For example, scientists often use protons in particle accelerators, (sometimes called "atom smashers"), which create beams of actively charged particles and then point them toward targets. The energy created by these accelerators help scientists study the nucleus of the atom, and create the nuclear energy that will create new particles."

Tags:Hantaro, Nagaoka, Rutherford, Bohr

Abstract
This essay explains the basis of Quantum Mechanic Theory of the atom, which describes the behavior of electrons in atoms & molecules. The author examines this theory and provides a detailed analysis of it.

From the Paper
"The Quantum Mechanics Theory describes the behavior of electrons in atoms & molecules. Quantum Mechanics is also referred to as Wave Mechanics. The theory of quantum mechanics tells us that in the atom, electron waves are standing waves. This theory was devised by Max Planck in 1901. He stated that light is emitted by the atoms of a luminous body in separate packets or bundles of energy called quanta or photons. One or more of the electrons revolving about the nucleus of an atom can be made to jump from one orbit to another. As they do so one or more photons are emitted. This energy radiates from the luminous body as electromagnetic waves. The energy content of a photon determines the length and frequency of the wave. Wave mechanics views the probability of finding an electron at a given point in space."

Tags:chemistry, physics

Abstract
Discusses the necessity and morality of use of atomic weapons against Japan in World War II. Justification of use. Continuing debate over purpose of bomb: to save American lives or to send a political-diplomatic threat to the Soviet Union. Actions of U.S. military. Differences between using the atom bomb on Hiroshima and on Nagasaki.

From the Paper
"The Atom Bomb And World War II


The United States was angered and shocked at the recent atomic weapons testing by India and Pakistan. Yet, we were the only country to actually use atomic weapons, two bombs, to end World War II against Japan. The bombardier on the "Enola Gay" surely saw Hiroshima as nothing but a jumble of streets and houses and factory buildings. He dropped his weapon of radiation death on a "location". The question that still confounds and interests historians, even to the 21st Century, is whether the atomic bombing on two Japanese cities was truly necessary. "President Truman's decision to use atomic weapons against Japan has been much debated." (Maddox 1995 1) To some, the decision was a purely military one. "Evidence indicates that Truman used the bomb to prevent a costly invasion of Japan" (Maddox 1995 1)."

Abstract
This paper argues that the United States should have used other alternatives to end the war with Japan in 1945 and that it only dropped the atom bomb due to internal and external pressures. The paper offers several alternatives, such as showcasing the power of the atomic bomb in a non-combat demonstration and the modification of U.S. demand for unconditional surrender.

From the Paper
"A fourth alternative was the continuance of conventional warfare. The United States could have continued the naval blockade of Japan. This would have slowly caused Japan to run out of food, ammunition, and other necessities and forced them to surrender. Moreover, as Bill Dietrich has noted, the U.S. could have continued the conventional bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which had already destroyed 60 of Japan's cities."

Tags:Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Enola, Gay, Pearl, Harbor, Leaky

Abstract
This paper discusses how the decision to authorize the use of atomic bombs against Japan in 1945 was reached. The paper charts the different opinions voiced at the time and afterwards, as well as the opinions of those who thought that Truman made the wrong choice.

From the Paper
"The decision to authorize the use of Atomic Bombs against Japan in 1945 was in the hands of President Harry S Truman. There are many different opinions of what should have been done, as many as there were at the time, and also many who feel that Truman made the wrong choice; historians themselves cannot agree on whether the President ended the War with this action, or dropped a devastating bomb on a nation that was willing to surrender anyway. Hindsight does suggest that the massive number of civilian casualties "More than 200,000 deaths - the vast majority of victims being women, children and elderly men" (Long, The Historians' Letter to the Smithsonian) was rather excessive, but Truman could not have predicted those casualties, nor that the effects would remain in the population for so long afterwards. Truman did not have the benefit of our knowledge, and so the best way to consider the justification for his actions is to consider his own words and actions."

Tags:intervention, invade, evacuation

Abstract
This is a detailed study describing the progression of the Manhattan Project and the invention of the atomic bomb. The "Manhattan Project" was a code name given to the efforts and collaboration of many scientists to build the first atom bomb. The author sees two major challenges that faced the team of highly capable scientists. The first was the actual production of the atom bomb. This involved actually making innovative discoveries that would revolutionize war and change man's idea of war for good. The second involved all of the ethical debates on whether or not the bomb should have actually been used in warfare. The author concludes that the building of the atomic bomb proved to be the most pivotal advance seen by science up until the early twentieth century.

From the Paper
"We have too many men of science, too few men of God. We have grasped the mystery of the atom and rejected the Sermon of the Mount...The world has achieved brilliance without wisdom, power without conscience. Ours is a world of nuclear giants and ethical infants. We know more about war than we know about peace, more about killing than we know about living..." stated General Omar N. Bradley, Chief of Staff of the United States Army in 1948, voicing the opinion, shared by many of the time, towards the building of the atomic bomb. The "Manhattan Project" was a code name given to the efforts and collaboration of many scientists to build the first atom bomb. There were two major challenges that faced the team of highly capable scientists. The first was the actual production of the atom bomb. This involved actually making innovative discoveries that would revolutionize war and change man's idea of war for good. The second involved all of the ethical debates on whether or not the bomb should have actually been used in warfare. The project lasted from 1942-1946 and cost approximately 1.8 billion dollars, which is comparable to 20 billion dollars today. The building of the atomic bomb proved to be the most pivotal advance seen by science up until the early twentieth century."

Tags:Manhattan, Project, World, War, II, atomic, bomb, invention

Abstract
The paper explains Bertrand Russel's theory of atomism, which emphasizes logical analysis and its consequences for metaphysics. The paper describes how Russel explains the structure of the external world and discusses how pluralism, rather than monism, is the logical force behind the philosophy. The paper also looks at the many arguments against Russell's theory of logical atomism.

Outline:
Introduction
The Structure of the World
Russell's Logical Atomism
Logical Atomism - Realistically Logical?
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Bertrand Russell, author of the theory of atomism, was a philosopher whose emphasis was primarily on logical analysis and its consequences for metaphysics. The traditional philosophical problem of the external world, which is based on the fact that external qualities can only be drawn inferentially, was explained by Russell (1910) as a distinction between "knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description" (Irvine, 2003). Russell's 1918 work on logical atomism was based on the argument that the world is comprised of logical atoms, which he described as "little patches of colour", and their properties (ibid). Together these properties, according to Russell, form the atomic facts which are thus combined to create logically complex objects. Therefore what is normally explained as inferred entities, such as enduring physical objects, are actually logical constructions created from immediate entities of sensation, which Russell identified as "sensibilia" (ibid)."

Tags:logic, pluralism, metaphysics, atoms, sensibilia

Abstract
The paper explains that Bertrand Russell, author of the theory of atomism, was a philosopher whose emphasis was primarily on logical analysis and its consequences for metaphysics. The paper outlines how the traditional philosophical problem of the external world, which is based on the fact that external qualities can only be drawn inferentially, was explained by Russell (1910) as a distinction between "knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description" (Irvine, 2003). The paper also explains that Russell's 1918 work on logical atomism was based on the argument that the world is comprised of logical atoms, which he described as "little patches of colour", and their properties (Irvine, 2003).

Tags:bertrand, russell, atomism

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses that the atomic bomb has dramatically changed the world we live in and will continue to strike fear into every day civilians. The writer looks at the use of the atomic bomb in the Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 and discusses the moral implications of the use of the atomic bomb.

From the Paper
"The making of the atomic bomb was inevitable but the use of the atomic bomb was a mistake that will never be forgotten. The atomic bombings of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 ended the bloodiest war in human history, but Japan was on the verge of surrendering anyway, so there was no military justification for the use of these horrific weapons."

Tags:atomic, bomb, issues

Abstract
The paper gives a brief insight into atoms from the beginning of recognition of their existence by the ancient Greeks, to the ability today to create man-made ones. It discusses the chemical composition of atoms and how scientists can now predict their behavior with great accuracy.

From the Paper
"According to existing theories and experimental results, the Big Bang took place about 12,000-15,000 million years ago. Within the first three minutes of the existence of the Universe, the light elements originated. Atoms came along after about 300,000 years and the stars and galaxies originated during the first million years. However, it took a while for humans to recognize atoms, although they were right before their eyes."

Tags:protons, electrons, neutrons, quantum, physics, nucleus, atomic, number