Abstract
This paper presents recent research in atherosclerosis that has yielded surprising results, as more and more dimensions of inflammatory/autoimmune diseases begin to show themselves as essential aspects of the disease. The paper explains that though this research is in its infancy, the prior research on rheumatoid arthritis as well as late coming connections between the incidence of one and the incidence of the former are being found occurring simultaneously between the two disorders, both of which show a higher mortality rate together and when atherosclerosis appears as inflammatory in nature. The paper discusses the early findings that demonstrate connectivity between both incidence of rheumatoid arthritis and atherosclerosis and the similarities between the two disorders, both of which serve as a distinctive element of future research and growth of alternative treatments for the previously mysteries outcomes of varied degrees of atherosclerosis and its equally mysterious prognosis based upon the degree of damage done to coronary and circulatory arteries. This paper contains illustrative figures and graphs.

From the Paper
"Researchers and clinicians have been seeking the so called "holy grail" of atherosclerosis for a long time, having previously and possibly falsely associating incidence with high LDL cholesterol, a link which has been questioned almost from its inception but has led to significant treatment modalities for the reduction of LDL being utilized in high risk and non-high risk patients. Systemic inflammation may then prove to be one of the most effective and cost effective tools for the development of screening tools for patients with and without RA who may develop atherosclerosis. Early detection is essential to halting the progression in both groups and recent RA findings indicate that associating high levels of general inflammation in all patients is a good screening tool for atherosclerosis. See Figure 2 for cIMT comparisons between early onset RA and control studies."

Tags:coronary, circulatory, correlation, disease, inflammatory

Abstract
The paper identifies atherosclerosis as an inflammatory disease and discusses the causes and the manner in which it occurs. The paper gives a well documented and technical explanation of the processes involved and includes diagrams.

Outline:
Introduction
Immune Cells involved in the Lesions of Atherosclerosis
Immune Cells Patrol to the Vessel Wall
Chemotactic Transmigration
The Role of Macrophages in Atherosclerosis
T-Cell Types and Function in Atherosclerosis
CD8 Cells and T Cells Involved
Summary

From the Paper
"Macrophages (MPh) and T cells are generally common components found in atherosclerotic lesions, thay may also contain a few mast cells and the occasional B cell. T cells are activated by the antigens locally presented by antigen-presenting macrophages and dendritic cells. Activation inspires a production of interferon- (IFNg), which not only primes the macrophages for activation but also regulates the smooth muscle and endothelial functions. Activated macrophages produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor- (TNFa) and IL-1, which can induce pro-coagulant (Coag), fibrinolytic (fibr.), and adhesive properties on endothelial cells (EC)."

Tags:smooth, muscle, macrophages, pro-inflammatory, dendritic, cells, endothelial, functions

Abstract
This paper examines how atherosclerosis is a disease of the arteries that causes it to 'harden' and affects both medium and large arteries. It looks at how it is the principal cause of heart attacks and strokes and how it is responsible for over 50% of all deaths in the western world.

Outline
Introduction
Risk Factors of Atherosclerosis
Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis
Proliferation of Smooth Muscle Cells
Recruitment of Immune Cells to the Vessel Wall
Adhesion Molecules
Oxidised LDL (oxLDL)
Role of Monocytes/Macrophages
Role of Cytokines, Chemokines and Growth Factors
Foam Cell Formation
Lesions of Atherosclerosis

From the Paper
"There are several factors that contribute to the development of atherosclerosis but the prominent risk factor is considered to be hypercholesterolaemia that could be due to genetic defects and/or diet. In relation to the former, it has seen that mutations in the ABCA1 gene are responsible for two genetic disorders, tangier disease and familial hypoalphalipoproteinaemia (FHA) (Medh, 2000). Tangier disease causes cholesterol deposition in macrophages throughout the body due to impairment of cellular efflux and the absence of HDL (Asztalos and Schaefer, 2003). FHA results in decreased cellular cholesterol efflux and degradation of HDL (Brooks-Wilson et al. 1999). Another genetic disorder familial hypercholesterolaemia is a condition that leads to high lipid levels in the plasma due to impaired removal of lipids."

Tags:genetic, disorders, artery, cell, muscle

Abstract
The paper outlines how atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease of the blood vessels, develops. The paper looks at the symptoms of the disease and its diagnosis and explains why atherosclerosis is termed as a silent killer.

Outline:
Introduction
Atherosclerosis
Diagnosis
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Atherosclerosis often starts during childhood and the arteries become clogged over the years. This hinders the flow of blood because arteries are the main vessels that carry oxygen rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body. The plaque is mainly made of calcium, fats, cholesterol and other substances found in the blood. As time progresses, the plaque thickens and hardens forming calcium deposits considerably narrowing the arteries thus greatly reducing the flow of the oxygen rich blood to other body parts. This can eventually lead to stroke if it occurs in the brain arteries, heart attack if it occurs in the heart arteries and gangrene if it affects the arms and the legs or even death (Health-cares.net 2005)."

Tags:heart, attack, stroke, angina, plaque, arteries, emblization, endothelium

Abstract
The paper devotes a comprehensive discussion to the pathogenesis of disease on a cellular level, which maps out the rationale for dietary and pharmacological management of the disease. In this paper, emphasis is placed on risk assessment, setting of treatment goals based on this assessment, nutritional medical therapy and follow-ups.

From the Paper
"Atherosclerosis is derived from two Greek words athere (gruel) and sclerosis (adhere). It is the thickening of the inner arterial wall, or intima as a result of lipid accumulation. Coronary heart disease is a direct result of the atherosclerosis of segments of the coronary arteries and can affect any arterial supply in the body, particularly the carotid bifurcation, internal carotid artery and its branches, the proximal renal arteries. Historical information before rudimentary understanding of human physiology is scant. One record pertaining to the cause of Herod's death in BC 4 has been a debatable historical issue."

Tags:nutritionalmedicaltherapy, clinicalnutrition, diet

Abstract
This paper discusses how cardiovascular disease, including atherosclerosis, is a serious public health problem responsible for vast numbers of hospitalizations and deaths each year and how the costs of treatments, including drugs and procedures, is exponential. It examines how, in order to develop effective treatments and prevention strategies, potential causes of atherosclerosis must be addressed. Homocysteine is an amino acid found in the blood in different concentrations. It explores how research evidence has shown considerable correlations between elevated homocysteine levels and an increased risk of atherosclerosis. It aims to thoroughly examine the role that homocysteine plays in atherosclerosis and the extent to which certain biological and lifestyle factors, such as vitamin status and diet, affect levels of homocysteine and the presence and progression of atherosclerosis.

Outline
Evidence of the Relationship Between Homocysteine and Atherosclerosis
The Effects of Diet and Vitamin Supplementation on Homocysteine Levels
Genetic Variation and Homocysteine
Implications for Intervention

From the Paper
"Suliman et al. (2003) reported that in studies of patients with end-stage renal disease that had very high levels of homocysteine (greater than 90%), total homocysteine levels were strongly associated to serum albumin levels. Also, patients with malnutrition had lower levels of total homocysteine and serum albumin than people with normal nutritional status. In addition, inflammation, diabetes and cardiovascular disease were all found to be associated with hypoalbuminia, and therefore, with lower levels of hyperhomocysteinemia. Furthermore, these researchers demonstrated with different groups of patients with end-stage renal disease, which should be noted, have inherently higher levels of homocysteine, that increased total homocysteine levels are associated with lower cardiovascular disease mortality."

Tags:heart, malnutrition, vitamins, hormones

Abstract
The purpose of this research is to examine insulin as a risk factor for atherosclerosis. The plan of the research will be to set forth the connection that has been identified between insufficient insulin usage by the body system and cardiovascular disease, and then to discuss ways in which insulin has been identified in various research studies as a risk factor for atherosclerosis in particular.

From the Paper
"The purpose of this research is to examine insulin as a risk factor for atherosclerosis. The plan of the research will be to set forth the connection that has been identified between insufficient insulin usage by the body system and cardiovascular disease, and then to discuss ways in which insulin has been identified in various research studies as a risk factor for atherosclerosis in particular. Unfortunately, despite the relative familiarity of insulin to professional clinical research, its function and role in the problems associated with atherosclerosis is imperfectly understood.

To say that insulin is a risk factor for atherosclerosis is somewhat misleading for the reason that it is a risk factor by negative inference. That is, atherosclerosis appears to be a consequence of what insulin does not do--or what it does badly ..."

Abstract
The paper outlines the clinical history of a 70-year old man with symptoms of peripheral arterial disease (PAD), the pathology of the disease and the patient preparation for a CT angiography. The paper explains the scanning and contrast protocol and looks at strategies to reduce the radiation dose. The paper explores image display, appearance and analysis, the after care of patients and the treatment and prognosis for PAD. The paper includes a CT image of PAD.

Outline:
Clinical History
Pathology
Patient Preparation for CT Angiography for PAD
Scanning Protocol
Contrast Protocol
Strategies to Reduce Radiation Dose
Image Display, Appearance and Analysis (2D/3D Reconstruction)
After Care of Patients
Treatment and Prognosis
Prognosis
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is a chronic arterial occlusive disease of the lower extremities as result of atherosclerosis. Computed tomography angiography (CTA) produces detailed images of blood vessels and tissues of the extremities, and is thus, helpful in the diagnosis of PAD. Earlier, CTA technology was able to image only a portion of the peripheral arterial tree. Later, the multi-detector row CT (MDCT) technology evolved. In 1998, with the arrival of four-detector row CT (4D-CT), a complete coverage of the lower extremity inflow and runoff arteries with one acquisition using a single-contrast bolus, was possible. Further, with the 16-detector row CT (16D-CT), the spatial resolution increased and the contrast medium efficiency improved. Finally, with the 64-detector row CT (64D-CT) scanner, a true isotropic high spatial resolution of the entire volume was possible. Thus, the multi-detector row CT angiography (MDCTA) has developed as an accurate method in assessing the peripheral arteries."

Tags:CT, angiography, scanning, contrast, radiation, leg, foot, arteries

From the Paper
"The Cholesterol Controversy: Who should be screened, and who should be treated? Atherosclerosis nutritionally is it just a cholesterol problem?"

Introduction
Public Health & Statistics
Cholesterol is a public health concern. Since 1968 there has been a decline of about three percent per year in mortality rates for coronary heart disease (CHD), however, it still remains the major cause of death in the United States. The Adult Treatment Panel II of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) recognizes elevated serum total cholesterol levels, particularly with high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) as.."

Abstract
The paper describes a 70-year old patient's medical issues and provides a table of the patients' drugs, including their routes, frequencies and durations. The paper then discusses the effects, side/adverse effects, contraindications and precautions associated with these medications as well as the patient's knowledge of health problems, compliance and willingness to self-administer medication. In addition, the paper discusses the patient's drug allergies, his reactions, his alcohol intake and smoking in addition to his use of herbal remedies, OTCs, street drugs and his storage of medication. Finally, the patient examines the dietary, economic, cultural and physical influences on his condition.

Outline:
Drug Names, Route, Frequency & Duration
Knowledge of Effects, Side/Adverse Effects, Contraindications and Precautions
Knowledge of Health Problems, Compliance, Willingness to Self-Administer Medication
Drug Allergies, Reactions, Alcohol Intake and Smoking
Use of Herbal Remedies, OTCs, Street Drugs, Storage of Medication
Dietary, Economic, Cultural and Physical Influences

From the Paper
"WH is a 70-year-old Caucasian male who has been previously diagnosed with both glaucoma and hardening of the arteries. According to WH, about 18 months ago, the doctor found that he had blockages of his renal arteries and a partial blockage of his femoral artery. He stated, "The doctor said I had hardening of the arteries and my kidneys were failing because of it."
"Fifteen months ago, he had three stents put in the renal arteries and about six months ago, he had a stent put in his right femoral artery. WH has noticed that his legs do not ache like they did prior to the surgery. "I used to have problems walking for a long distance, but now my legs and feet don't bother me." He states, "Before the surgery on my kidneys, my blood pressure was pretty high; but now, it seems to be better controlled since the doctor put me on all the blood pressure medicines." WH is mostly worried about his kidney function; however, he states that the doctors seem to think his kidney function is not worsening."

Tags:medications, side, effects, reactions, allergies, kidneys, arteries, eyes