Abstract This paper examines how atherosclerosis is a disease of the arteries that causes it to 'harden' and affects both medium and large arteries. It looks at how it is the principal cause of heart attacks and strokes and how it is responsible for over 50% of all deaths in the western world.
Outline
Introduction
Risk Factors of Atherosclerosis Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis Proliferation of Smooth Muscle Cells
Recruitment of Immune Cells to the Vessel Wall
Adhesion Molecules
Oxidised LDL (oxLDL)
Role of Monocytes/Macrophages
Role of Cytokines, Chemokines and Growth Factors
Foam Cell Formation
Lesions of Atherosclerosis
From the Paper "There are several factors that contribute to the development of atherosclerosis but the prominent risk factor is considered to be hypercholesterolaemia that could be due to genetic defects and/or diet. In relation to the former, it has seen that mutations in the ABCA1 gene are responsible for two genetic disorders, tangier disease and familial hypoalphalipoproteinaemia (FHA) (Medh, 2000). Tangier disease causes cholesterol deposition in macrophages throughout the body due to impairment of cellular efflux and the absence of HDL (Asztalos and Schaefer, 2003). FHA results in decreased cellular cholesterol efflux and degradation of HDL (Brooks-Wilson et al. 1999). Another genetic disorder familial hypercholesterolaemia is a condition that leads to high lipid levels in the plasma due to impaired removal of lipids."
Abstract The paper identifies atherosclerosis as an inflammatory disease and discusses the causes and the manner in which it occurs. The paper gives a well documented and technical explanation of the processes involved and includes diagrams.
Outline:
Introduction
Immune Cells involved in the Lesions of Atherosclerosis Immune Cells Patrol to the Vessel Wall
Chemotactic Transmigration
The Role of Macrophages in Atherosclerosis T-Cell Types and Function in Atherosclerosis CD8 Cells and T Cells Involved
Summary
From the Paper "Macrophages (MPh) and T cells are generally common components found in atherosclerotic lesions, thay may also contain a few mast cells and the occasional B cell. T cells are activated by the antigens locally presented by antigen-presenting macrophages and dendritic cells. Activation inspires a production of interferon- (IFNg), which not only primes the macrophages for activation but also regulates the smooth muscle and endothelial functions. Activated macrophages produce pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor- (TNFa) and IL-1, which can induce pro-coagulant (Coag), fibrinolytic (fibr.), and adhesive properties on endothelial cells (EC)."
Abstract This paper discusses how cardiovascular disease, including atherosclerosis, is a serious public health problem responsible for vast numbers of hospitalizations and deaths each year and how the costs of treatments, including drugs and procedures, is exponential. It examines how, in order to develop effective treatments and prevention strategies, potential causes of atherosclerosis must be addressed. Homocysteine is an amino acid found in the blood in different concentrations. It explores how research evidence has shown considerable correlations between elevated homocysteine levels and an increased risk of atherosclerosis. It aims to thoroughly examine the role that homocysteine plays in atherosclerosis and the extent to which certain biological and lifestyle factors, such as vitamin status and diet, affect levels of homocysteine and the presence and progression of atherosclerosis.
Outline
Evidence of the Relationship Between Homocysteine and Atherosclerosis The Effects of Diet and Vitamin Supplementation on Homocysteine Levels
Genetic Variation and Homocysteine
Implications for Intervention
From the Paper "Suliman et al. (2003) reported that in studies of patients with end-stage renal disease that had very high levels of homocysteine (greater than 90%), total homocysteine levels were strongly associated to serum albumin levels. Also, patients with malnutrition had lower levels of total homocysteine and serum albumin than people with normal nutritional status. In addition, inflammation, diabetes and cardiovascular disease were all found to be associated with hypoalbuminia, and therefore, with lower levels of hyperhomocysteinemia. Furthermore, these researchers demonstrated with different groups of patients with end-stage renal disease, which should be noted, have inherently higher levels of homocysteine, that increased total homocysteine levels are associated with lower cardiovascular disease mortality."
Abstract The purpose of this research is to examine insulin as a risk factor for atherosclerosis. The plan of the research will be to set forth the connection that has been identified between insufficient insulin usage by the body system and cardiovascular disease, and then to discuss ways in which insulin has been identified in various research studies as a risk factor for atherosclerosis in particular.
From the Paper "The purpose of this research is to examine insulin as a risk factor for atherosclerosis. The plan of the research will be to set forth the connection that has been identified between insufficient insulin usage by the body system and cardiovascular disease, and then to discuss ways in which insulin has been identified in various research studies as a risk factor for atherosclerosis in particular. Unfortunately, despite the relative familiarity of insulin to professional clinical research, its function and role in the problems associated with atherosclerosis is imperfectly understood.
To say that insulin is a risk factor for atherosclerosis is somewhat misleading for the reason that it is a risk factor by negative inference. That is, atherosclerosis appears to be a consequence of what insulin does not do--or what it does badly ..."
Abstract The paper devotes a comprehensive discussion to the pathogenesis of disease on a cellular level, which maps out the rationale for dietary and pharmacological management of the disease. In this paper, emphasis is placed on risk assessment, setting of treatment goals based on this assessment, nutritional medical therapy and follow-ups.
From the Paper "Atherosclerosis is derived from two Greek words athere (gruel) and sclerosis (adhere). It is the thickening of the inner arterial wall, or intima as a result of lipid accumulation. Coronary heart disease is a direct result of the atherosclerosis of segments of the coronary arteries and can affect any arterial supply in the body, particularly the carotid bifurcation, internal carotid artery and its branches, the proximal renal arteries. Historical information before rudimentary understanding of human physiology is scant. One record pertaining to the cause of Herod's death in BC 4 has been a debatable historical issue."
Abstract The paper discusses the onset of coronary artery disease and the condition of atherosclerosis. The paper explains that coronary artery disease is primarily characterized as an inflammation of the arteries. The paper outlines the causes of this inflammation and examines the strong correlation between coronary artery disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) as well as with Type II Diabetes. The paper looks at the most serious complication from coronary artery disease, which is the possibility of a heart attack.
From the Paper "Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a frightening name for an all-too common illness. It is the most common type of heart disease and the leading cause of death in the United States for both men and women ("What Is Coronary Artery Disease?" NIH, 2007). More than 64 million Americans suffer from some form of cardiovascular disease, and in 2001, cardiovascular disease was responsible for more than 39 percent of all deaths in the United States (American Heart Association: Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics 2004, cited by "Coronary Artery Disease and Atherosclerosis, Health Concerns, 2006, p1)."
Abstract The purpose of this research is to examine insulin as a risk factor for atherosclerosis. The plan of the research will be to set forth the connection that has been identified between insufficient insulin usage by the body system and cardiovascular disease, and then to discuss ways in which insulin has been identified in various research studies as a risk factor for atherosclerosis in particular.
From the Paper The purpose of this research is to examine insulin as a risk factor for atherosclerosis. The plan of the research will be to set forth the connection that has been identified between insufficient insulin usage by the body system and cardiovascular disease, and then to discuss ways in which insulin has been identified in various research studies as a risk factor for atherosclerosis in particular.As long as an individual lives in ignorance of the past, he will see every experience as utterly new and will deal with that experience in the same way as a child who lives with no storehouse of knowledge or wisdom which would allow him to avoid past mistakes.
The message of Voltaire's Candide is that the world in which we live is populated with people who live primarily in order to get what they want, using whatever means necessary, and always looking for innocent victims of whom they can take advantage."
"Lipids are hydrocarbons that are found in living systems in the environment. The main classes of lipids are triglycerides, waxes, steroids, phospholipids, gylcolipids, and sphingolipids (Glanze). The simplest lipid, which makes up the backbone of all of these, is the fatty acid (see page 2). The main characteristics that separate the different kinds of lipids are the derivatives, such as acids, alcohols, amines, amino alcohols, and aldehydes, found on the end of the hydrocarbons and their solubility in water. Most lipids are non polar and there for are not soluble in water but instead in fat solvents such as ether, chloroform, and benzene. From these two basic distinctions, there are dozens of possible lipids that can be formed in nature and synthetically (Cooper)."
A discussion on peripheral arterial disease, also known as PAD, a chronic condition in which arteries that supply blood to the legs become blocked by a buildup of plaque.
Abstract The following paper examines the symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of PAD, a form of atherosclerosis, a progressive disease characterized by fatty deposits in the inner layer of the arteries, which gradually narrows the artery. The writer particularly focus on 'Raynaud?s' one of the forms of PAD which causes fingers and toes to turn blue and white with cold .
From the Paper \"It's important to remember that many people have PAD without having any symptoms. Such individuals are at higher risk for a stroke or heart attack. Research indicates that the risk for dying from heart disease is six times higher for people who have PAD, and PAD patients have a 30 percent risk of dying from a cardiovascular-related problem within five years after the initial diagnosis of PAD (University of Penn Health System). It is essential that anyone who has health problems or a lifestyle that could lead to PAD be aware of the symptoms of this potentially life-threatening disease, as see a doctor for any problems. Peripheral arterial disease can be controlled in most cases. People only need to be aware of the signs.\"
From the Paper "The Cholesterol Controversy: Who should be screened, and who should be treated? Atherosclerosis nutritionally is it just a cholesterol problem?"
Introduction
Public Health & Statistics
Cholesterol is a public health concern. Since 1968 there has been a decline of about three percent per year in mortality rates for coronary heart disease (CHD), however, it still remains the major cause of death in the United States. The Adult Treatment Panel II of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) recognizes elevated serum total cholesterol levels, particularly with high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) as.."
Abstract Dietary antioxidant vitamins and death from coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women" by Kushi, Folsom, Prineas, Mink, Wu, and Bostick (1996) reports that evidence supports the conclusion that the oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) might be important in the development of atherosclerosis and studies indicate that antioxidants may have a role in preventing the development of coronary heart disease. This study provided the opportunity to examine effects of dietary antioxidants related to mortality from coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women.
From the Paper "ANTIOXIDANTS & HEART DISEASE
Introduction
"Dietary antioxidant vitamins and death from coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women" by Kushi, Folsom, Prineas, Mink, Wu, and Bostick (1996) reports that evidence supports the conclusion that the oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) might be important in the development of atherosclerosis and studies indicate that antioxidants may have a role in preventing the development of coronary heart disease. This study provided the opportunity to examine effects of dietary antioxidants related to mortality from coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women.
Oxidized LDL has been found to be present in atherosclerotic plaques and the oxidation of LDL seems to enhance the uptake of ..."
Abstract This paper examines how coronary heart disease is a killer and how it is predominantly affected by the chronic inflammatory reaction occurring in the subendothelium of the artery. It builds a picture of the cascade of events that occur to form a fatal atheroma in the coronary arteries, illustrated with experimental evidence obtained from experiments with transgenic mice.
From the Paper "The blood supply to the heart is referred to as the coronary blood supply. This is provided by the left and right coronary arteries, which are subdivisions pf the coronary artery that joins the aorta just above the mitral valve. The right coronary artery supplies the right atrial and ventricular myocardium, whereas the left coronary artery splits into the left circumflex artery supplying the left atrial and ventricular myocardium, and the left anterior descending artery which supplies the left ventricular and right ventricular myocardium. Most notably there are no anatomises in the coronary circulation. Therefore, occlusion of any of the arteries will result in severely reduced perfusion to the area usually supplied by that artery. This leads to ischemia, and eventual cell death, fibrosis and loss of function. Therefore the coronary blood supply is particularly venerable to arterial disease that causes arterial occlusion."
Abstract This paper looks at the myocardial infarction (MI), or in other words a type of heart attack. The writer discusses what happens physically and physiologically when an MI occurs. The writer also examines the risk factors for MI. In this article, the writer studies the treatment and prognosis for MI.
From the Paper "Myocardial infarction (MI) is the name for a heart attack, which occurs when there is a sudden and complete blockage of the flow of blood to a section of the heart muscle. Myocardial MI's can occur at anytime and they occur without warning. With age, the coronary arteries become narrowed because of a build up of plaque along the walls leading to a condition known as arteriosclerosis. This means the blood flow through the vessels is lowered and the blood supply to the muscle of the heart ... "
Abstract In this article, the writer looks at the molecular biology of the cholesterol transport from arterial walls to the liver for biliary excretion. The paper looks at all the genes and their agonists and antagonists involved - LXR, PPAR, ABCA1, apoE, oxysterols, cholesterol metabolites etc. The writer then discusses how they all work together to transport cholesterol from the arterial walls in order to minimize atherosclerosis.
From the Paper "Atherosclerosis is a form of arteriosclerosis in which plaque builds up in the inner linings of the arteries. Plaque consists of a combination of fatty substances, cholesterol waste products from cells fibrin and calcium and usually develops in medium and large arteries, thickening their walls and causing them to lose elasticity and so become less resilient. Atheromatous plaques build up in vessel walls and in advanced stages reduce or restrict blood flow through the vessel lumen. The inner covering of the atheroma may ... "
Abstract This paper explains that, in the beginning of chronic renal failure, there are virtually no symptoms; however, the progression of the disease can cause an increase in blood pressure, an accumulation of potassium in the blood, an accumulation of urea, anemia, fatigue, an overload of fluid volume, cardiac arrhythmia and vascular calcification. The author points out that, at end-stage of renal disease, renal replacement therapy, such as kidney dialysis and even kidney transplant, is required to keep the patient alive. The paper relates that patients with chronic renal failure also have a high incidence of atherosclerosis, which usually accelerates at a faster rate, and of cardiovascular disease, which has a prognosis that is not as good as someone without chronic renal failure.
From the Paper "Sometimes, the levels of serum creatinine have not been measured in the past, and therefore the patient is often first treated as having acute renal failure. Only when blood tests continue to show elevated serum creatinine levels and it is determined that the renal failure is irreversible will the diagnosis be made as chronic renal failure as opposed to the previously assumed acute renal failure. A numerous amount of uremic toxins also accumulate in individuals that have chronic renal failure and are involved in the treatment of standard dialysis."
