Abstract
This paper focuses on the issues surrounding the discovery and refinement of the astronomical distance ladder, beginning with a brief account and definition of the ladder itself before moving onto a definition and discussion of the insights of Edwin Hubble. After considering Hubble's contributions, it then discusses the developments offered by new scientists attempting to pin down the Hubble Constant in their work. The astronomical distance ladder is a device used by astronomers to measure distances between objects in space. The basic premise of the ladder is that, since we cannot measure distances directly, we make our distance observations based on distances that are already known.

From the Paper
"As regards the Astronomical Distance Ladder, this was a huge and important step in the direction of the debate. Previous understandings of distance were based largely on the intensity of objects, and the nineteenth century standard generally held to the idea that "faintness means farness," but the Hubble constant and its revelation of a constantly expanding Universe opened the door to a wide variety of debates about the way distances are measured (Gingerich 1071). Indeed, then the current debate has largely settled around more specific elements of Hubbles view, rather than a whole-scale rejection of his system or some other form of innovation. Indeed, the large and greater portion of debates relating to the astronomical distance ladder focus "on recently determined and still controversial values of the Hubble constant." "

Tags:edwin, hubble, universe, space, constant

Abstract
This paper looks at how, as Galileo first turned his telescope toward the heavens, he was drastically turning mankind away from its long-accepted view that the Aristotelian view of the heavens was correct. It examines the significance of Galileo's early astronomical observations on the Aristotelian universe by examining Aristotle's theory of the cosmos, pertinent background on Galileo, his discoveries, and the effect they had on Aristotle's universe.

Outline
Introduction
Aristotle's Universe
Galileo Leading Up to His Discoveries
Galileo's Observations and their Significance
The Moon
Jupiter
Venus
Other Important Observations
Toward a Heliocentric Model
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The next object Galileo turned his attention to was the planet Jupiter. In January of 1610, he saw three small but bright stars in the area of Jupiter that changed positions with time, but never strayed far from Jupiter. After repeated observations, Galileo concluded that there are three stars in the heavens moving about Jupiter. He later discovered a fourth satellite of Jupiter and he named these moons the Medicean stars. These satellites were seen to orbit Jupiter at various distances and speeds. This was the first time that a planet other than Earth was found to have satellites orbiting it."

Tags:copernicus, galileo, jupiter, moon, padua, ptolemy, renaissance, science, sun, sunspots, telescope, venus

Abstract
This paper discusses marriage and suppression in the two short stories "The Yellow Wallpaper" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman and "Astronomer's Wife" by Kay Boyle. It also looks at the different reactions of the female characters to their marriage.

From the Paper
"One of the basic building blocks of society is the nuclear family where one plus one equals three. Contrasting political and social view points, aside if the two sexes did not occasionally ...|

Tags:Kay Boyle, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Yellow Wallpaper, Astronomer's Wife, marriage, suppression

Abstract
This paper analyzes the book "The Astronomer's Wife" by Kay Boyle. The paper describes the Astronomer who symbolizes the intellect, and the Plumber who symbolizes the physical. Using short quotes from the story throughout the paper, this point is proved. The paper also interprets the relationship of Mrs. Ames with the two men and states an opinion as to whether or not she would be happy with the Plumber for a long period of time.

From the Paper
"The stars twinkle gaily as they dance eastward across the sky. The roots of the noble oak creep ever downward, sucking up precious nutrients from the damp earth. The moon looks solemnly upon the darkened sky, changing faces to suit her mood. The grass speaks in whispers to those who would tread upon it, and listens to the night-things crawling below. This is what Mrs. Ames has to choose from in Kay Boyle's "The Astronomer's Wife": the heavens or the earth. More truly, perhaps, she has to choose between mind and spirit or body and emotions. She is a young woman, "but this she had forgotten"(149). She takes refuge in day-to-day activities, attempting to overcompensate for her "dreamer" (148) of a husband."

Tags:boyle, intellectual, kay, physical, ames, relationships, spiritual

Abstract
The paper relates that the armillary sphere (lat. armilla = bracelet) is one of the oldest astronomical instruments. The paper explains that the sphere (or sometimes referred to as 'model') represented heavenly spheres and was extensively used by early astronomers for measurements and explanations of heavenly motions (i.e. stars and planets). The paper also mentions that the simplest design of armillary sphere, consisting of a ring fixed in the plane of the equator, is probably one of the oldest astronomical instruments. The paper then describes how further development introduced another ring (armilla) fixed in the meridian plane, or perpendicular to the first or equatorial ring.

From the Paper
"The armillary sphere (lat. armilla = bracelet) is one of the oldest astronomical instruments. The sphere (or sometimes referred to as `model') represented heavenly spheres and was extensively used by early astronomers for measurements and explanations of heavenly motions (i.e. stars and planets). The simplest design of armillary sphere, consisting of a ring fixed in the plane of the equator, is probably one of the oldest astronomical instruments. Further development introduced another ring (armilla) fixed in the meridian plane, or perpendicular to the first or equatorial ring. These rings are also referred to as equinoctial and..."

Tags:armillary spere, astronomy, history

Abstract
This paper examines the astronomical phenomenon of Aurora, more specifically the aurora borealis commonly known as northern lights. This essay examines the scientific understanding of their origins, the colors and images that result and concludes with consideration of the mythical and aesthetic links to the northern lights.

Abstract
This paper looks at the astronomical phenomenon known as dark energy and discusses key discoveries by Albert Einstein and Edwin Hubble are discussed as well as current research done by Saul Perlmutter from UC Berkeley. The paper addresses supernovae, redshifiting, and the state of the universe overall as a non-static enivronment.

From the Paper
"The universe came to existence about fifteen billion years ago with what is referred to as "The Big Bang". At this point the size of the universe was zero and after the initial reaction (or bang) began its expansion. The Standard Hot Big Bang model says that in the universe each part of the mass-energy contained is gravitationally attracted by all other mass-energy (Harrison 2001). This model alludes that the rate of expansion should be slowing down and brings questions about if the expansion will stop. After all, if everything that has mass is attracted to everything..."

Tags:dark, energy, universe

Abstract
This paper discusses the tremendous salaries that professional athletes receive and the implications of such high-salaried players for the economy and society. The paper suggests that, in terms of the economy, the high salaries that professional athletes receive may actually be a good sign, even though, from a moral perspective, it may be a bad sign for society.

From the Paper
"Marshall Burrow points out that Michael Jordan makes an amazing 33 million dollars a year, not to mention another 40 million a year in endorsements. Burrow has even gone as far as to break Jordan's salary down to the day. Michael Jordan makes $170,000 a day! Is anyone, much less an athlete, worth a $170,000 a day? Once again, Jordan's salary is not reflective of his value to society. The president of the United States makes a somewhat modest $250,000 a year, and this basketball player practically brings that home each day. We should keep in mind that while sports are a business, that's not what they were originally intended for, as Burrow points out that, "They are just games, and games are supposed to be something we do for fun!" "

Tags:ball, players, michael, jordan, sports, cost, baseball, endorsements, golf, tiger, woods

Abstract
This paper will explore these questions by applying a time series and random walk analysis. In the final analysis, it will be clear that time series data has little if any ability to predict short term returns. Interestingly, the paper also finds that new economy stocks (such as Yahoo and AOL) clearly do not exhibit signs of a random walk, but older economy stocks like Coca Cola and Proctor and Gamble may. It is clear that the more companies are linked to the new, information based economy, the less their stocks exhibit sings of a random walk.

Abstract
The average person has probably heard of two female scientists, Marie Curie and astronaut Sally Ride. But, as one source puts it, "despite many barriers, women all over the world have participated in unraveling the secrets of nature since the dawn of civilization." The paper gives brief skethces of the careers of four reflective females math and science thinks.

From the Paper
C21175 March 29, 2008 FEMALE ASTRONOMERS AND MATHEMATICIANS The average person has probably heard of two female scientists, Marie Curie and astronaut Sally Ride. But, as one source puts it, "despite many barriers, women all over the world have participated in unraveling the secrets of nature since the dawn of civilization." The source goes on to state that women scientists of the past, "faced obstacles to their scientific work that arose simply because they were women. Many were hardly permitted to get an education; some were

Tags:science, mathematics, gender