Abstract
This paper focuses on the issues surrounding the discovery and refinement of the astronomical distance ladder, beginning with a brief account and definition of the ladder itself before moving onto a definition and discussion of the insights of Edwin Hubble. After considering Hubble's contributions, it then discusses the developments offered by new scientists attempting to pin down the Hubble Constant in their work. The astronomical distance ladder is a device used by astronomers to measure distances between objects in space. The basic premise of the ladder is that, since we cannot measure distances directly, we make our distance observations based on distances that are already known.

From the Paper
"As regards the Astronomical Distance Ladder, this was a huge and important step in the direction of the debate. Previous understandings of distance were based largely on the intensity of objects, and the nineteenth century standard generally held to the idea that "faintness means farness," but the Hubble constant and its revelation of a constantly expanding Universe opened the door to a wide variety of debates about the way distances are measured (Gingerich 1071). Indeed, then the current debate has largely settled around more specific elements of Hubbles view, rather than a whole-scale rejection of his system or some other form of innovation. Indeed, the large and greater portion of debates relating to the astronomical distance ladder focus "on recently determined and still controversial values of the Hubble constant." "

Tags:edwin, hubble, universe, space, constant

Abstract
The average person has probably heard of two female scientists, Marie Curie and astronaut Sally Ride. But, as one source puts it, "despite many barriers, women all over the world have participated in unraveling the secrets of nature since the dawn of civilization." The paper gives brief skethces of the careers of four reflective females math and science thinks.

From the Paper
C21175 March 29, 2008 FEMALE ASTRONOMERS AND MATHEMATICIANS The average person has probably heard of two female scientists, Marie Curie and astronaut Sally Ride. But, as one source puts it, "despite many barriers, women all over the world have participated in unraveling the secrets of nature since the dawn of civilization." The source goes on to state that women scientists of the past, "faced obstacles to their scientific work that arose simply because they were women. Many were hardly permitted to get an education; some were

Tags:science, mathematics, gender

Abstract
This paper discusses marriage and suppression in the two short stories "The Yellow Wallpaper" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman and "Astronomer's Wife" by Kay Boyle. It also looks at the different reactions of the female characters to their marriage.

From the Paper
"One of the basic building blocks of society is the nuclear family where one plus one equals three. Contrasting political and social view points, aside if the two sexes did not occasionally ...|

Tags:Kay Boyle, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Yellow Wallpaper, Astronomer's Wife, marriage, suppression

Abstract
This paper analyzes the book "The Astronomer's Wife" by Kay Boyle. The paper describes the Astronomer who symbolizes the intellect, and the Plumber who symbolizes the physical. Using short quotes from the story throughout the paper, this point is proved. The paper also interprets the relationship of Mrs. Ames with the two men and states an opinion as to whether or not she would be happy with the Plumber for a long period of time.

From the Paper
"The stars twinkle gaily as they dance eastward across the sky. The roots of the noble oak creep ever downward, sucking up precious nutrients from the damp earth. The moon looks solemnly upon the darkened sky, changing faces to suit her mood. The grass speaks in whispers to those who would tread upon it, and listens to the night-things crawling below. This is what Mrs. Ames has to choose from in Kay Boyle's "The Astronomer's Wife": the heavens or the earth. More truly, perhaps, she has to choose between mind and spirit or body and emotions. She is a young woman, "but this she had forgotten"(149). She takes refuge in day-to-day activities, attempting to overcompensate for her "dreamer" (148) of a husband."

Tags:boyle, intellectual, kay, physical, ames, relationships, spiritual

Abstract
This paper looks at how, as Galileo first turned his telescope toward the heavens, he was drastically turning mankind away from its long-accepted view that the Aristotelian view of the heavens was correct. It examines the significance of Galileo's early astronomical observations on the Aristotelian universe by examining Aristotle's theory of the cosmos, pertinent background on Galileo, his discoveries, and the effect they had on Aristotle's universe.

Outline
Introduction
Aristotle's Universe
Galileo Leading Up to His Discoveries
Galileo's Observations and their Significance
The Moon
Jupiter
Venus
Other Important Observations
Toward a Heliocentric Model
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The next object Galileo turned his attention to was the planet Jupiter. In January of 1610, he saw three small but bright stars in the area of Jupiter that changed positions with time, but never strayed far from Jupiter. After repeated observations, Galileo concluded that there are three stars in the heavens moving about Jupiter. He later discovered a fourth satellite of Jupiter and he named these moons the Medicean stars. These satellites were seen to orbit Jupiter at various distances and speeds. This was the first time that a planet other than Earth was found to have satellites orbiting it."

Tags:copernicus, galileo, jupiter, moon, padua, ptolemy, renaissance, science, sun, sunspots, telescope, venus

Abstract
Scientific discoveries and tools have changed our knowledge of the universe over the years. With astronomers past and present, we have learned about the planet Earth, our Sun, and the planets that surround. This paper details the history of astrology, prominent astronomers, and the solar system.

Tags:stars, and, planets

Abstract
The paper relates that the armillary sphere (lat. armilla = bracelet) is one of the oldest astronomical instruments. The paper explains that the sphere (or sometimes referred to as 'model') represented heavenly spheres and was extensively used by early astronomers for measurements and explanations of heavenly motions (i.e. stars and planets). The paper also mentions that the simplest design of armillary sphere, consisting of a ring fixed in the plane of the equator, is probably one of the oldest astronomical instruments. The paper then describes how further development introduced another ring (armilla) fixed in the meridian plane, or perpendicular to the first or equatorial ring.

From the Paper
"The armillary sphere (lat. armilla = bracelet) is one of the oldest astronomical instruments. The sphere (or sometimes referred to as `model') represented heavenly spheres and was extensively used by early astronomers for measurements and explanations of heavenly motions (i.e. stars and planets). The simplest design of armillary sphere, consisting of a ring fixed in the plane of the equator, is probably one of the oldest astronomical instruments. Further development introduced another ring (armilla) fixed in the meridian plane, or perpendicular to the first or equatorial ring. These rings are also referred to as equinoctial and..."

Tags:armillary spere, astronomy, history

Abstract
This paper explores methods used by astronomers to measure the universe, the dual nature of light, origins of the universe and the solar system and types of stars. It also discusses planets and other celestial bodies.

From the Paper
"Another way to measure the universe is using shadows. Some astronomers observe "dark silhouettes cast by distant clusters of galaxies (Glanz,1999)" against the "cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) (Glanz, 1999)" The glow from this radiation provides a back light that helps measure the size of the shadows. The CMBR was formed back when the cosmos were only 100,000 to 300,000 years old. Because of the CMBRs' age, "everything in the visible universe lies in front (Glanz, 1999)" of it. When the radiation started out, it had hot temperatures due to the universe just being formed. However, as the universe expanded, the temperatures cooled. This gives astronomers additional information to aid them in their measurements."

Tags:solar, system, celestial, space, cosmic, radiation, light, cosmos

Abstract
This paper presents a fictitious interview with astronomer Galileo Galile. Here, various questions are posed to this historic figure, which focus on astronomy, particularly the relationship of the sun to the earth. The paper also highlights Galileo Galile's interest in the solar system and his desire to see if Aristotelian theory stood up to closer scrutiny.

From the Paper
"What is your full name? My name is Galileo Galilei. When were you born? When did you die? How old would you be today? I was born February 15, 1564 in Pisa in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany; I died in January 1642, just a few weeks shy of my 78th birthday. Needless to say, I would now be 454 years of age where I still alive. Where were you born, and what was your nationality? As mentioned in my previous response, I was born in Pisa in what was then the Grand Duchy of Tuscany; I suppose today I would be identified as..."

Tags:astronomer, interview, questions

Abstract
This paper examines the astronomical phenomenon of Aurora, more specifically the aurora borealis commonly known as northern lights. This essay examines the scientific understanding of their origins, the colors and images that result and concludes with consideration of the mythical and aesthetic links to the northern lights.