Abstract This paper discusses one of the most important and nation altering events to occur in the 1960s, the Apollo astronaut program, specifically, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldren's successful walk on the moon on July 20, 1969. It analyzes how space flight stimulated the nation's growth in myriad ways. It looks at the many technological advances came from the Mercury and Apollo programs and beyond, from lightweight metal alloys to smaller and smaller computer guidance systems which eventually turned into desktop computers so extremely prevalent in the world today. It evaluates how if we had not gone to the moon, our lives today might be much different and so would many of our institutions. Space flight stimulated technological growth, national pride and the notion that we can still "reach for the stars."
From the Paper "First came the Mercury project, where America put men in space. On May 5, 1961, Major Alan Shepard, a Naval academy graduate and test pilot, climbed aboard the Freedom 7 capsule atop a Redstone rocket and became the first American in space. Shepard's flight was sub orbital and lasted only 15 minutes, but it showed America we could still be vital in the space race (which the Russians were winning at the moment), and it kindled spirit and passion in the minds of Americans. The Mercury program ran from 1958 to 1963, and satisfied all its objectives. The Gemini flights between 1965 and 1966 were designed to transition between the Mercury exercises and the Apollo moon missions. The Gemini flights were to teach us how maneuver a spacecraft by maneuvering it in orbit, rendezvousing in space, docking with other vehicles, perfecting methods of entering the atmosphere, and landing at a preselected point on land."
Abstract The paper explains that in "The Right Stuff", bravery is born of awareness as much as performance. The paper discusses the characteristics that showed the astronauts had the "Right Stuff." The paper explains the quality of fortitude, perseverance, putting on a brave face and the ability to take on the pressure of other people's perceptions.
From the Paper "The Right Stuff is a story of bravery. However the Rights Stuff conceptually is a definition of the type of bravery required from the individuals chosen to be astronauts. And this type of bravery in large part is due to the different levels of pressure put upon these astronauts. Pressure of expectation, performance, meeting the challenge, and idealization of their missions all contributed to a unique set of personality characteristics that showed they had the "Right Stuff." These characteristics were relatively subtle, as far as how the individuals responded to the subtle and deepened layers of pressure that were thrust upon them."
The history of rocketry from concept to modern day space travel. Researches the rocket engine's international development and significance in the space program.
2,940 words (approx. 11.8 pages), 4 sources, 1999, $ 86.95
Abstract This research paper investigates the science of rocketry starting with the original concept, up to the present day space program. Developments in Germany, Russia, and the U.S. are detailed, along with the ways in which rockets have been used both on earth and in space. Most of the paper will deal with the development of the rocket engine up to its present day standards and its history in space flight.
From the paper:
"The notion of flying has fascinated people since the beginning of history, and most likely since the beginning of time. With the development of astronomy, man shifted that dream to another realm: outer space. Robert H. Goddard, a physicist of the early 1900?s, once told a story in his autobiography of how he was inspired to follow the dream of space flight. He recalls once when he was 17 years old; he was trimming branches in a cherry tree, and looked out at the sprawling country landscape. He imagined how fabulous it would be to soar upward into space, watching the earth receding below him. ?I was a different boy when I descended the ladder,? Goddard states, ?Life had now a purpose for me.?
Abstract This paper details of the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War and how and why it was a show of power and superiority. The author looks many different aspects of the space race including, its purpose, how it was used to show the other country its weaknesses, how it enabled both countries to explore the uncharted vastness of space and find for it new military and how they attempted to use the moon as the ultimate propaganda tool.
From the Paper "Even though Sputnik had no direct military impact, it showed the progress of the USSR in science and military and prompted the US government to pay more attention to its own missile operation (McGhee 331). The media played a major role in spurring the government to take action. Sputnik was front-page news on all the papers and it had all of America wondering how something like that could happen without anyone knowing (Schefter 23). At first the US government was not impressed by the Soviet's accomplishments. President Eisenhower felt that the U.S. people had acted like children and that no response to Soviet actions was necessary (Burrows 200). He felt that the US needed to toughen up for a long war they may have in the future and did not see the US as being in any competition with the Soviets (Burrows 200). He even went so far as to congratulate the Soviets on their accomplishments (McGhee 330)."
Abstract This paper examines this medical technology which has been in use since the first astronauts took off in the 1960's and has developed at a very rapid pace since the hype of the Internet. It looks at its effectiveness both from a budget point of view and the quality of treatment. The benefits of this trend are also discussed.
From the Paper "Telemedicine began in the early 1960's when the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) first put men in space. Physiological measurements of the astronauts were monitored from both the spacecraft and the space suits during NASA space flights. In the 21st century, patients can be scheduled, seen, diagnosed, receive follow up care, rehabilitation, and patient education through telemedicine. Internet accessibility, together with rapidly evolving technology, makes telemedicine increasingly efficient."
Background of program & astronauts, economics and contract competition. Examines technology, politics, insurance, including looking at international issues.
2,700 words (approx. 10.8 pages), 11 sources, 1997, $ 95.95
From the Paper "Introduction
Since its inception, the American space program has operated under the auspices of the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) which oversees the various projects which the American space program has undertaken. NASA does not actually manufacture or produce any items, but instead contracts the work to private companies. Despite this, the space program in the United States has been run by the government for many years. Indeed, the impetus for going to the moon was provided by John Kennedy in a famous speech in which he challenged the American people to put a man on the moon within a single decade. In recent years, there has been pressure brought to bear on eliminating, or substantially reducing, the involvement of NASA and the government in the space program. It is thought by many that introducing additional..."
Abstract This paper discusses how, like most tragic or unusual events in history, the 1986 NASA Challenger explosion offers a hindsight perspective of what "went wrong" and what "should have been done" to prevent the loss of lives.
From the Paper "The United States? government, NASA officials, airspace scientists, engineers, educators, public interest groups, and the media alike, immediately jumped on the band wagon to explain the events that led up to the tragedy. President Reagan initiated an independent commission to investigate all of the parties involved, while NASA, the media, and the scientific community pointed fingers, called names, and "explained away" with great political finesse the behavior and choices that ultimately led to explosion. Very much like the Salem Witch Hunt Trials, people were questioned and re-questioned concerning their thoughts and actions. Reporters, academicians, social scientists, culturalists, authors, and even, folk song writers, seized the moment to "glean and explain" the events and the ?lessons learned.? The author, Diane Vaughan, is one of many, who attempted to offer, for a nominal fee of $20+ tax per copy, a "cultural-contextual" explanation of people's thoughts and behavior before and after the explosion. Based on the reading of Dr. Vaughan's book as well as a review of other articles and reports, below is an outline of some of the "lessons learned" from the Challenger accident."
Abstract This paper discusses how, in order to keep the shuttle program an effective vehicle for space exploration, safety of the astronauts must always be the first concern. It explains how deadlines must always be flexible and based on the ability of NASA to make a launch that is as safe as possible. It also discusses how final votes on decisions must be made anonymously to eliminate the influence of group pressure for a goal inappropriate for such a risky endeavor.
From the Paper "The Rodgers Commission, in addition to making numerous suggestions about how to improve the structure of shuttles and ways to increase safety for the astronauts, noted the management decisions that contributed so significantly to the disaster. They particularly noted that decision makers were under considerable pressure to maintain ambitious flight schedules (Harwood, 1986). This pressure stemmed from both political and economic forces. NASA will have to decide whether its goals are one of scientific inquiry or of making money through space exploration. When it is recognized that these two goals are incompatible, they will have to be prioritized. Given the inherently danger to space exploration, it will be clear that safety, based on the best science available, will have to be the overriding concern. In decision meetings, the structural dynamic must support real inquiry, not simply support a predetermined and preferred outcome."
Abstract This paper explains that the many changes such as the fall of the Soviet Union, the reunification of Germany and many other events of the decade have left the world spinning, the fin de siecle (or "end of century") phenomenon. The author points out that Barbie's have made a comeback, having been transformed from her previous cultural role as a candy stripper and housewife in the sixties to become "Astronaut Barbie" and "Dr. Barbie," reflecting that women have becoming an increasing part of the work force across the country in every type of career. The paper relates that even the traditional school is changing with the growing popularity of the charter schools, a concept in which a public school operates under a special contract, a charter, arranged between a group of school organizers and a sponsor, which sets forth how the school will be run, what will be taught and how success will be measured, giving it some freedom from the traditional school.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Culture and Thought in the 1990s
Entertainment
Theater
Hobbies
Fads
Schools
Science and Technology
Telecommunications
Tools
Economics
Business
Manufactured Items
World Events
End of the Cold War
Persian Gulf War
Reunification of Germany
Indian/Pakistani Nuclear Tests
International Food Production
Brief Cultural Observations Through the Nineties
Conclusion
From the Paper "Tools. While an increasing number of Americans purchasing hand and power tools during the 1990s as Black & Decker and other consumer tool manufacturers targeted niche audiences with home appliances and tools, clearly the most powerful tool of the 1990s must be the personal computer. According to the literature, by 1990 some personal computers had become small enough to be completely portable; they included laptop computers, which could rest in one's lap; notebook computers, which were about the size of a notebook; and pocket, or palm-sized, computers, which could be held in one's hand. At the high end of the PC market, multimedia personal computers equipped with CD-ROM players and digital sound systems allowed users to handle animated images and sound (in addition to text and still images) that were stored on high-capacity CD-ROMs."
Tags: computer, internet, globalization, china, century
Abstract It is difficult for many Americans to believe that sending human beings into space via the national space program is such an important effort today. This is partly in the light of a reconfigured geopolitical balance between Russia and America, and partly due to the increased costs and perceived risks of the space program. This paper argues these doubts are correct. For although it may become technically possible for humans to travel to Mars, the paper argues that human travel to Mars should not be the primary goal of the American space program.
From the Paper "For NASA, Mars remains an important long-term goal and a way of establishing political capital in Washington D.C. during a time where even necessary, earthly social services programs are finanically strapped, given the war on terrorism at home, and the reconstruction of Iraq abroad. Its official literature directed towards the public promotes Mars exploration, in the form of the Mars Rover and also in terms of the potential for "making the vision a reality" of manning a spacecraft to the Red Planet. But although refreshing in the breadth of its vision and the beauty of its prose, NASA remains cagey about the financial realities this mission would cost the United States, and working out the details of negotiating a truce or a peace pact regarding finances between the United States and Russia over such a mission. (NASA Official Website, 2005)"
Abstract The paper explains that before landing on the moon, scientists feared that the astronauts manning a space craft might die and that there was a possibility of lunar microbes causing an epidemic if they found their way into the earth's biosphere. The writer explains that despite this great risk, the Soviets and Americans continued the race to space. The paper suggests reasons for this race to have continued and the writer posits that the only reason for doing so was for one of these nations to prove the dominance of their way of life over the other country's way of life. The writer states that the United States won the race to the moon, and also dominance of the planet, and that the Soviet Union broke apart while America prospered. In conclusion, the writer questions whether the exploration of space will wane without competition and posits that it may become a mission not of fostering competition between nations, but inspiring cooperation.
From the Paper "While the moon does not have anything to due with proving either of these ways of life superior to the other per se, the conquest of the moon was an important symbolic victory. There was a definite feeling that whoever managed to land on the moon first would prove to be the "superior" society. Astronaut Eugene Cernan clearly illustrates this anxiety to prove America's dominance of the Earth through space travel in his book The Last Man on the Moon. He starts his book recalling the occasion when he and two fellow astronauts were in the middle of testing a space craft when they were interrupted by an important phone call. Interruptions of these tests were rare since they were so difficult to set-up, so terminating the test must mean something very wrong had happened. One of the first thoughts Cernan remembers having when they were called out of their craft was "...maybe it was our worst nightmare come true, and the Russians were on their way to the Moon" (Cernan 5). That turned out not to be the case: in fact, the phone call was to inform them of the deaths of three other American astronauts in an electrical fire while testing another spacecraft. Cernan, of course, was devastated by the loss of his friends and colleagues, but nevertheless, he apparently viewed the idea of the Russians reaching the moon as his "worst nightmare." He writes that after the funerals, he worried that the American space program might be scrapped forever. "From this point on," he writes, "the dream of sending men into orbit and beyond would be viewed through the prism of the sacrifice demanded. It was a dangerous enterprise and we all now clearly understood what President Kennedy meant when he said our country had accepted this challenge not because it was easy, but because it was hard" (Cernan 13). Why, after such a tragedy, was Cernan's first fear that the Russians might beat the Americans to the moon? And why, after the funerals, did he and his fellow astronauts become even more determined to risk their lives for what was, for all practical purposes, a mostly symbolic victory? Risking so much to do something "because it was hard" really isn't a satisfactory answer."
Abstract This paper explains that, in Robert A. Heinlein's classic science fiction novel "Stranger in a Strange Land" (1961), the character Mike, the son of lost astronauts from Earth, is raised on Mars by Martians, and returns to Earth only as an adult, making him the "stranger in a strange land". The author points out that the title may refer to the 'Book of Exodus' from the "Old Testament" where Moses names his firstborn son "Gershom" meaning "a stranger there"; however, the usual interpretation is that Mike, the "stranger in the strange land", is a Christ-like figure. The paper concludes that, like Jesus, Mike seeks to make the earth a better place; however, a better analogy is to parallel Mike to the Old Testament's Moses rather than the New Testament's Jesus.
From the Paper "In other ways, though, Mike is nothing like Jesus. First, Mike is indisputably the orphaned son of two Earthlings; while Jesus either was or was not (depending on one's religious convictions and viewpoint) the son of God. Jesus, however, knew Mary and Joseph as his parents on earth, even if Joseph was perhaps not Jesus' real father; while Mike, on the other hand, never knew his parents."
Abstract This paper discusses the Apollo 7 and Apollo 8 space missions and their overall effect on the United States' space race. It looks at the history behind the space race and climate in the United States at the time that the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) was first developing these missions. The paper concludes that these missions helped to revive American interest and motivate the public's support for NASA, as well as helped America to take a definite lead in the space race against the Soviets.
From the Paper "Remembering the Apollo 8 mission, William Anders stated, "The biggest surprise of the mission was to see the first Earthrise over the moon and to realize that the Earth was even more interesting than the moon. I consider the moon voyages a technical feat, a political feat." Apollo 8 was indeed both of these. The Apollo 7 and 8 missions were vital ingredients in the overall victory for America in the space race. They helped to revive American interest and motivate the public's support for NASA. They also helped America to take a definite lead in the space race against the Soviets and use this momentum to continue to the moon. Lastly, they helped to prove that the moon was a feasible goal, and that Kennedy's idea of putting a man on the moon before the decade was out was more than possible."
An analysis of the events that led up to the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster and the changes that NASA has implemented to prevent a similar disaster from occurring.
Abstract This paper introduces and analyzes the topic of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Specifically, it analyzes the accident that occurred on the morning of February 1, 2003 and discusses the events that led up to its occurrence. The paper then discusses what NASA learned from the Columbia disaster and the changes that it has implemented as a result.
From the Paper "In conclusion, NASA learned much from the Columbia disaster, and they have implemented new flight techniques and safety checks that help ensure this type of accident does not happen again. However, the Columbia disaster indicates that communication and decision-making at NASA is sometime suspect, and that continues, even today, even though NASA has developed these new safety checks to help make sure disasters like Columbia do not happen again. While the communication techniques NASA officials use may come into question, ultimately, it is recognized that space travel, although we often take it for granted, is inherently dangerous. Astronauts know that, and so do their families. Every time we send another space shuttle into orbit, we face the possibility of disaster, it is that simple. Still, space travel has largely been safe, and it seems that NASA will continue to promote safe space travel into the future."
Tags:astronauts flight communication STS-107, Cape Canaveral
Abstract The paper presents the thesis that there is nothing man is incapable of doing, not even exploring far beyond the Earth's boundaries, as long as he puts his mind, heart and body into it. The paper overviews the period of time in American history preceding the launch of Apollo 11, describes the design of the Apollo 11 lunar module and the Apollo mission itself and discusses the discoveries made. The paper concludes with the firm belief that this mission proved that humanity is destined for things far beyond their realms.
Outline:
Humanity and the Moon
The Era of Turmoil
The Apollo 11 Space Mission
The Discoveries from the Apollo 11 Space Mission
The Contribution of the Apollo 11 Space Mission to Mankind
From the Paper "It has been nearly 40 years since man placed his footprints on the Moon. For millions of years, people had looked up into the vastness of space, wondering what lay beyond the earth's atmosphere. Space exploration was simply a fragment of one's imagination - a creation of science fiction. On Earth grounds, many a human being had looked up at the Moon, observing its detail and absorbing its essence: how the light played on its surface, its craters, and shadows. How man imagined being on it, exploring if there were signs of life, and sought to discover if the Moon was a picture of the earth's future. Man had wondered: is it ever possible to uncover the vastness of the universe by first visiting the closest neighbour Earth has?"
