Abstract This paper digs deeply into how aspirin and salbutamol were developed and also how they interact in the body from a heavy chemical and neurological perspective. It also gives a detailed overview into how, in general, pharmacueticals are developed using bronchodilars as an example. Also included are numerous diagrams in order to aid the reader comprehend the text.
From the Paper "Since 400BC physicians prescribed a bitter powder extract from the willow bark tree to alleviate pain. In the middle of the 18th century two chemists by the name of Fontana and Brugnatelli extracted the active agent Salicin from the willow, and was then converted by Piria into Salicylic acid. Felix Hoffman a German chemist set about trying to synthesise salicylic acid."
Abstract The paper gives an overview of toxicological issues and their effects on health aspects. The paper explains why smokers have a greater risk for manifestation of asbestosis than do non-smokers, the scientific content breakdown of aspirin poisoning, the clear link between a low protein diet and increasing blood levels of cadmium and lead and, lastly, the dangers of alcohol. It explains how the human body is a very delicate piece of machinery with very fine balancing mechanisms and the effects that the toxicological issues mentioned have on it.
From the Paper "Aspirin poisoning creates acid base abnormalities in the body and hence monitoring the blood and urinary Ph values are vital during the treatment. It is well known that blood is a well-buffered fluid system in the body and its normal Ph is 7.41. [DEHL] Since aspirin is quickly hydrolyzed into salicylic acid in the blood plasma there is an observed increase in acidity in the plasma. Increasing plasma salicylate levels leads to metabolic acidosis, which is compensated for by respiratory alkalosis resulting in fast deep breathing. The kidney, as an important homeostatic organ of the body, tries to compensate by absorbing h+ ions or HCo3 ions. An increase in urine ph in effect implies that there is an increase in acidity of blood, which the kidney tries to set right. Sometimes, alkaline diuresis maybe necessary to bring down the urinary and blood acidity levels and to facilitate the kidney in increasing the absorption and urinary elimination of salicylates. [eMedicine] Thus, in effect the blood and urinary Ph are vital statistics in the treatment of aspirin poisoning."
Abstract The paper states that Tetrahymena are model organisms that are commonly used to study their feeding behavior over various environments and preys. They are common holotrichic ciliates easily grown in the laboratory, using pure liquid cultures. They acquire their nutrients by ingesting smaller microbes such as bacteria and fungi. The paper comments on the tests performed on Tetrahymena phagocytosis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the presence of different concentrations of aspirin. The paper records that after treatment, the cells were analyzed by flow cytometer via computer program, ColorCell software, when percent phagocytosis were identified. It was originally thought that aspirin would decrease the phagocytotic ability of Tetrahymena; however, the data concluded that aspirin does not alter this ability over a period of 4 minutes. The paper states that further analysis is necessary with longer treatment period and using various other drugs.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
From the Paper "Utilizing such power technology, we are now able to study the feeding behavior of our model organism, Tetrahymena sp., using FITC-labeled yeast and determine if the prey has been phagocytized. We will label Saccharomyces cerevisiae with FITC dye and detect the ingestion under different environments. So we would like to explore the following questions: How long does it take for Tetrahymena to ingest food? And, do different concentrations of aspirin affect Tetrahymena feeding behavior? "
Tags: naturally, derived, drugs, granularity, density
Abstract This paper considers the elasticity of demand and the pricing strategy for Aspirnew, a pain reliever that is stronger and longer-lasting than aspirin. The author also explores the demand for over the counter pain relievers.
From the Paper "Demand is said to be elastic, when the demand drops significantly as price increases. Demand is considered inelastic when consumers demand the same amount regard of the price commanded by suppliers. Taylor Bottled drinking water has a relatively ..."
Abstract This paper presents the case of EB, a 68-year-old Alaska native female who currently resides in an assisted living facility because she is no longer able to perform even basic functions of daily living. The author points out that her medications, which include reserpine and aspirin, are appropriate because of the long half-life of reserpine, efficacy at controlling EB's specific symptoms of declining mental capacity and underlying hypertension and the relatively low cost of the medications. The paper concludes that, although no cure exists for Alzheimer's, there are medications available now and under development to control the symptoms and perhaps slow the progression of the disease.
Table of Contents:
The Case---EB
Patient History
Past Medical History
Alzheimer's Disease Background Information
Pathophysiology
Medication Indication
Medications
Alternative Pharmacological Regimens
Adverse Reactions
Financial
Client Interaction and Effects
Drug Interactions
Monitoring
Conclusion
From the Paper "Alternative pharmacological regimens to treat Alzheimer's include antioxidants, ergoloid mesylates and Huperzine A, along with others not mentioned. EB's presentation suggests that her disease progression and symptoms required medication to control her symptoms to prevent any further vascular accidents. In addition, there was little evidence to support alternative pharmacological regimens in her case. The expense, complicated dosing schedules, varying positive results, and possible negative side effects left too many gray areas to be considered a viable option for EB."
Description of morphine, aspirin, Atarax, Amoxicillin & others; their mode of action; use, attributes & effectiveness as treatments for various conditions ranging from pain to anxiety to high blood pressure, edema, infections & others.
3,600 words (approx. 14.4 pages), 0 sources, 2001, $ 127.95
From the Paper "MORPHINE
Morphine is given for the relief of moderate to severe pain. It can be given in tablet form, or injection, or intravenous infusion, depending on the severity of pain and the duration of administration necessary. Morphine provides analgesia and sedation.
The precise method of analgesic action of morphine is unknown, but central nervous system opiate receptors have been found throughout the brain and spinal cord, and are likely to play a role in the analgesic effects of morphine. Once absorbed, morphine is distributed to skeletal muscle, kidney, liver intestinal tract, lungs, spleen, and brain. Virtually all of the dose is converted to glucuronide metabolites. Approximately 50 percent of the dose which will reach the.."
From the Paper "How Aspirin Works: New Understandings
Aspirin ranks as one of the world's oldest pain relievers. One form of the drug can be found in willow leaves. It has been sold in tablet form since about the turn of the century. Aspirin belongs to a group of about 24 similar pharmacologic agents known collectively as the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Despite the long history and widespread application of these drugs, however, the biological mechanisms responsible for their physiologic effects have remained largely unknown. Only in recent decades have researchers begun to understand how aspirin works at the molecular level.
In 1971, Vane and his associates discovered that aspirin inhibits prostaglandin formation. Prostaglandins are a type of fatty acid. Their formation represents the first committed step ..."
Abstract This paper describes the different therapies available for the secondary prevention of stroke. Each treatment is explained, and the pros and cons are presented. The different therapies available for the secondary prevention of stroke provide individual benefits and risks. The paper outlines the statistics for the amount of stroke-caused deaths and stroke-related visits to the emergency room. The immense stress that the high incidence of stroke places on emergency healthcare is discussed.
From the Paper "Stroke is an all too common affliction that often leads to permanent disability or death. According to the National Center for Health Statistics, stroke is the cause of 167,661 deaths and 639,000 emergency department visits annually in the United States (these figures are based on statistics for the years 2000 and 1997 respectively). There are several risk factors associated with stroke. One of these factors is aging, which has been shown to significantly increase the risk of stroke (Carolei et. al., 2002). With the growing elderly population, the above statistics are bound to increase as time passes."
Abstract This paper explains that nature acts as a pharmacy, offering us products, from the forest pharmacy and the pharmacy below water, with which we can heal ourselves: For example, aspirin, quinine, cyclosporins, and penicillin. This paper details the techniques that are available to researchers, to collect samples of natural products from the wild in a systematic manner, to extract compounds from these samples, to isolate the biologically-active compounds within these extracts, to characterize the biologically-active compounds chemically in terms of their structure, to evaluate the biologically-active compounds biologically, to determine potentially useful therapeutic effects and finally the methodology necessary to take these compounds to clinical trial. The author stresses the importance of finding new and more effective drugs to fight against bacterial infections and cancer. Outline.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Nature's Pharmacopeia.
The Isolation of Biologically-Active Compounds and their Extraction Identification: Techniques
Introduction
Chemical Extraction
Biological Evaluation
Chemical Analysis
Chromatography
Solid Phase Extraction
Paper Chromatography
Thin Layer Chromatography
Flash Chromatography
High Performance Liquid Chromatography
Central Counter Current Chromatography
Determining the Chemical Structure of Compounds Isolated by Chromatography
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Mass Spectrometry
Drug Development
Examples of the Isolation and Identification
An Example of Extraction, Isolation and Chemical Characterization of Biologically-Active Compounds from Larch Wood
Biologically-active Compounds from Marine Organisms
What Compounds Have Been Isolated From Marine Organisms?
Biologically-Active Anti-Cancer Compounds ? Testing for Human Safety
Conclusion
From the Paper "Chromatography is the process whereby two or more compounds or ions are separated through the distribution of the compound or ion between two phases, one that is mobile and the other which is stationary. These two phases can be of any combination: liquid-liquid, solid-solid, solid-liquid or gas-liquid, gas-gas, or gas-solid. There are many specific techniques for chromatography, some of which will be described below, and all follow the same basic principles. All forms of chromatography involve a rapid and dynamic equilibrium of molecules between the two phases, either free ? mobile - or absorbed ? stationary. Molecules will constantly move back and forth between the free and absorbed states, with millions of molecules absorbing and desorbing every second. The equilibrium between these states depends on three factors: the polarity and size of the molecule, the polarity of the stationary phase, and the polarity of the solvent. Thus, three different variables can be changed in chromatography, which can change the equilibrium between the stationary and mobile phases: this allows one to choose mobile and stationary phases that will separate just about any combination of compounds."
This paper discusses the symptoms and treatment of fibromyalgia and distinguishes between fibromyalgia and other pain causing diseases such as arthritis.
Abstract This paper explains that, unlike arthritis, which affects the skeleton joints, fibromyalgia affects the muscles and other fibrous tissues, creating sensations, which range from nagging to burning to agonizing pain throughout the body and a syndrome of accompanying related symptoms, such as severe fatigue, disturbed sleep, morning stiffness, headaches and irritable bowel syndrome. The author points out that fibromyalgia is a puzzling disorder; its cause remains unknown and its pain responds poorly to aspirin, acetaminophen (Tylenol), ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) and even narcotics such as morphine. The paper stresses that, in the United States, too many health provide only "tough love" for this condition; therefore, fibromyalgia patients must be their own advocates and seek a practitioner who knows what fibromyalgia is, believes that it exists and wants to help people with this disorder.
From the Paper "Fibromyalgia is characterized by abnormalities in the central nervous system's processing of sensory input of pain signals. Patients with fibromyalgia hurt when and where they should not. Pain amplification could be the result of the release of neurotransmitters where the sustained release of certain chemicals results in more pain. Some of the possible disruptions in pain circuitry have been reviewed, but we still know relatively little about what really goes on. Since most fibromyalgia patients complain of aching and spasm in their muscles, common sense suggests that there must be something wrong with the muscle. This is easier said than agreed upon. For the last 80 years, researchers have been looking for the key to muscle pathology in fibromyalgia. As of this writing, there are highly respected investigators who feel that there is little if anything wrong with fibromyalgia muscles. However, other equally regarded researchers have presented evidence that abnormal muscle metabolism is the linchpin for what goes awry in the disorder. Our body has 640 different muscles, which constitute as much as 40 percent of our weight. When physicians look at muscles of fibromyalgia patients under a simple microscope, they generally appear normal."
Abstract This paper discusses cocaine and the numerous street names for cocaine. \According to the paper, the name depends on the drug's presentation and/or its combination with other drugs. Some of the most common street names are The All American Drug, Angie, (both pure cocaine) Aspirin and Aunt (powder cocaine).
Abstract The writer begins this essay with a discussion of the metabolism of toxic substances. The writer explains that the rate of metabolism in effect defines the concentration of the toxic substance. The slower the metabolic rate the more easily the toxic substance enters systemic circulation. Further, in this paper the writer discusses possible poisoning from chemicals such as aspartame or aspirin. The writer concludes this study with a look at the Bhopal carbide plant disaster in 1984.
From the Paper "The human liver plays an important role in metabolizing and breaking down food material, (including toxic substances) before it can reach the circulatory system and affect the entire body. Nature has defined the liver as a first line defense mechanism against food materials and toxic substances that we may consume unknowingly. The metabolizing enzymes in the hepatocytes are very efficient and this defense mechanism is known as 'first pass effect'. Typically, Phase one reactions are mainly oxidative, reductive or hydrolytic processes and form substrates for phase two conjugations. The cytochrome p450 enzymes are mainly responsible for the Oxidative phase one reactions. These are a group of enzymes that are actually a family of proteins that can act upon a wide range of substrates. Lipophilic chemicals are oxidated to yield water-soluble chemicals. These enzymes also perform heterocyclic hydroxylations and analkylation reactions. The end products of the phase one reactions are ready for conjugation with glycine, glucuronic acid, etc and are easily excreted from the body via urine."
