Abstract
This paper discusses the two major waves of economic geography, that is the epistemological wave and the hermeneutic of cultural wave. It also discusses incorporating artisanal production in theory forming in geography and why this is so important to research in geography.

From the Paper
"Artisanal Production and Geography The relationship between art and science has always been a contentious one. In many causes art and artisanal production have been ignored by disciplines wishing to be more scientific. This situation is discussed by Trevor J. Barnes in Retheorizing Economic Geography. Barnes argues that there have been two major waves of economic geography. These are the epistemological and the hermeneutic or cultural wave. The epistemological wave was characterized by a strong reliance on science (Barnes 546). For this reason the social, cultural and artistic were usually not dealt with in economic geography during the first wave."

Tags:artisanal, production, geography

Abstract
The paper relates that organic plans are desirable in the sense that the city's design and dimensions adapt themselves to the 'lay of the land' and to the daily lives of the local inhabitants (Kostof 1991, 43). The paper explains that beyond that, an organic city that is freed of geometric constraint allows for greater freedom of movement: "the grid is inflexible in terms of human movement....with the impairment of municipal controls in the post-Roman city, natural movement soon carved short-cuts through the large rigid blocks of the grid" (Kostof 1991, 48). The paper also discusses how as new urban realities - economic, financial and artisanal - prioritized new areas and de-emphasized others, the city blocks and the city grid have to be re-organized (Kostof 1991, 48), and, the organic city plan allows for this sort of adaptation over time because it does not presume that any arrangement is definite and unyielding over time.

From the Paper
"Organic plans are desirable in the sense that the city's design and dimensions adapt themselves to the `lay of the land' and to the daily lives of the local inhabitants (Kostof 1991, 43). Beyond that, an organic city that is freed of geometric constraint allows for greater freedom of movement: "the grid is inflexible in terms of human movement....with the impairment of municipal controls in the post-Roman city, natural movement soon carved short-cuts through the large rigid blocks of the grid" (Kostof 1991, 48). As new urban realities - economic, financial and artisanal -..."

Tags:urban, studies, city

Abstract
This paper explains that Joel Beinin's "Workers and Peasants in the Modern Middle East" begins in 1750, which marks the start of modern history for the Middle East because of (1) the rise of autonomous provincial regimes, (2) the expansion of agricultural production and (3) the intensification of links between several parts of the Ottoman Empire and the world capitalist market. The author points out that Beinin argues that industrial manufacturing was introduced to the Middle East as part of a drive to establish modern armies and extend the power of the states. The paper relates that Beinin considers the period after the collapse of global oil prices in 1985-86, when states became unable to provide previously established levels of services, thus creating an economic and moral vacuum, as the beginning of the political Islamic movements of establishing a popular base by offering social services, including education, health care and child care.

From the Paper
"During the era of Fordism-Keynesianism many Middle Eastern states pursued policies of populism, nationalist anti-imperialism, state-led economic development, and import-substitution industrialization. Some examples of this post-World War II trend he cites were Muhammad Mossadegh's nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in 1951 and Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal Company in 1956. State-led development and import-substitution industrialization were key components of the social policies advanced by Gamal `Abd al-Nasir in Egypt, the Ba`th in Syria and Iraq and the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) from the 1950s to the 1970s. The political and economic programs of these authoritarian-populist regimes were designated "Arab nationalism" and "Arab socialism" respectively."

Tags:fordism-keynesianism, authoritarian-populist, political-islam, petro-dollars, textile

Abstract
This paper considers Ben Franklin to be one of the most important people of his century. The author believes that his contributions shaped America, which changed the world.

Abstract
The paper compares the presidential scandals of Richard Nixon and Bill Clinton. First the paper reviews the Watergate scandal, and explains that this was just the tip of the iceberg, analyzing the machinations behind the break-in and reasons for it and its subsequent cover-up, and finding extensive criminal wrongdoing to be at the heart of the matter. Next, the paper focuses on President Clinton's sexual escapades, and analyzes why the press played up the story yet Clinton survived the impeachment process. Following this, the paper reviews various analyses of presidential personality and public perception, comparing the two Presidents, and focusing finally on the Meyer's Briggs Type Indicator of personality to show that Clinton was an Artisan while Nixon was a Guardian. The American public will, the paper informs us, love an Artisan despite his flaws, but respect a Guardian only in the absence of visible flaws. In conclusion, the paper finds that it is both the public perception of the respective Presidents' personalities, and the presence or absence of criminal wrongdoing, which caused Clinton's name to be praised while Nixon's is derided.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Nixon and Watergate
Clinton and Travel Gate etc.
Presidential Personalities
Conclusion
Footnotes
Bibliography

From the Paper
"History tells us that most likely, Nixon did not know in advance about the break-in and that his press secretary dismissed it as a "third-rate burglary." President Nixon lied when he assured the nation that "The White House has had no involvement in this particular incident". By the time of the press conference, he knew that several present and former White House employees were linked to the Watergate burglars. Nixon already had begun to cover those links by the time he asserted the White House's lack of involvement."

Tags:Watergate, scandal, impeachment, Meyers, Briggs

Abstract
Ancient Egypt had a significant impact on early Greek culture, as can be evidenced by enduring artifacts. Egyptian sculptures, primarily created for the pharaohs or high-ranking officials and essentially religious in function, significantly influenced the form and style of statues of the early Archaic Age. Poses were rather rigid and very conventional and facial expression was confined to the typical Egyptian half smile. The paper shows that over time, Greek artisans began developing their own approach. By the late Archaic and definitely prior to the beginning of the Golden Age or Classical Period, artwork started to reflect evolving philosophies and ideals and to celebrate the human figure. Sculptures portrayed more elaborate features and less static stances.

From the Paper
"The statues also represented the society's hierarchy. At the bottom of the rung were the slaves, tomb builders and farmers. Further up came the craftspeople, educators, doctors, noblemen and priests. The pharaoh filled more than the role of king and ruler. He was considered a god on earth. (Grant 1990, 23) Egyptians used the size of their statues to illustrate the social order. The pharaoh was larger then life size, scribes and court officials life size and workers and peasants always shown working. The images of the pharaoh, always larger than life, made him appear all the more god-like. The large works of sculpture were often displayed at temples that were built for the pharaoh's chosen deity."

Tags:Menkaure, kouroi, Doryphoros

Abstract
Discusses aesthetic sophistication of Bamun peoples of Fumban (historical capital of Bamun Kingdom) in Cameroon. Social and culture complexity of the people. Linguistic diversity. History of the various ethnic groups. Religioius beliefs & influence of European Missions & Colonization. Artwork. Works of Bamun artisans (Carving, weaving, embroidery, metalworking, leatherworking, pottery).

From the Paper
"This paper takes as its point of departure a figure standing 63 inches tall crafted of wood, textile, glass beads, cowrie shells and brass in the late 19th century by the Bamum peoples of Fumban in the Grassfields region of Cameroon (85-8-1, gift of Evelyn A.J. Hall and John Friede, on display at the National Museum of African Art). The complex symbolism and beautiful artisanship of this piece provide a sense of the social and cultural complexity of this people and the aesthetic sophistication of the group.

Cameroon is often described as a "racial crossroads" because of its more than 200 different ethnic groups, although this linguistic wealth can in fact be simplified to some extent because almost all of the languages can be divided into three main linguistic groups: the Bantu-speaking people of the south, the ..."

Abstract
This paper discusses the legacy of Sandro Botticelli, known as one of the best and most spiritually enlightened of the Neo-Platonic Renaissance painters who was eventually hired by the Pope to work on the Sistine Chapel. He was born to an artisan-class family of tanners where his artistic temperament was ignored and started his working career as a goldsmith until he received his first apprenticeship as an artist. Eventually he rose to fame, gained more commissions, both creating panels and the like for rich merchant families and frescoes and other church decorations. He became known for his dreamy and melancholic mythic religiosity and implications of human form and feature and ranked among the greatest of the allegorical and mystical painters of his time.

From the Paper
"Sandro's original apprenticeship as an artist was under the legendary Fra Filippo Lippi. In many ways this was a fortunate choice in masters; Botticelli's mystical and dreamy nature fit well with Lippi's penchant for the ideal and devotional. An apprenticeship in one of the more modern, naturalistic studios might have created a far different Sandro Botticelli, or hidden his actual talent. (Botticelli, 13) Lippi's influence is obvious in most of his student's early work, to such a degree that most of the earliest Botticelli paintings are virtually recreations of Lippi pieces, keeping content and design and scene in common while changing method and form ever so slightly. The resemblance between Botticelli's Madonna Guidi and Lippi's Madonna and Child with Angel is far from accidental."

Tags:medici, neo-platonic, sistine, chapel, pope, vespucci, apprenticeship

Abstract
The field of women's studies has tried to restore the place of women in history by looking at a wide range of women's roles and achievements in different historical periods. For example, Sanchez and Saens' (1996) compilation about Spanish women during the golden age explored the lives not only of queens but of women artisans and female religious figures. What is clear from these explorations is that women's lives were complex and their roles ambiguous, in some instances. Although the dominant culture of that age subordinated women, women's own efforts often allowed them to create some space for achievement and fulfillment.

From the Paper
"The Role of Women in Spain

Introduction
The field of women's studies has tried to restore the place of women in history by looking at a wide range of women's roles and achievements in different historical periods. For example, Sanchez and Saens' (1996) compilation about Spanish women during the golden age explored the lives not only of queens but of women artisans and female religious figures. What is clear from these explorations is that women's lives were complex and their roles ambiguous, in some instances. Although the dominant culture of that age subordinated women, women's own efforts often allowed them to create some space for achievement and fulfillment.

There is some evidence, however, that women's position declined after this golden age. Instead of greater ..."

Abstract
This paper looks at the genuine religious motivations and secular concerns, with recourse to the following:
1) Concept of 'clash of faiths' discussed.
2) Networks of clientage facilitating spread of dissent.
3) Individuals expressing religious insincerity.
4) Noble/Artisan divide.
5) Weakness of new kings.
6) Zeal in lower orders.
7) Rites of violence.
8) Calvinism as a binding force and intensifier.

From the Paper
"Any attempt to ascertain the 'role' of religion in the French Wars requires strict definitions in order to succeed, especially given the complexities attached to any examination of the motivations prevalent in the conversions which occurred in France. If one is to define religion as a particular system of faith and worship, then its fundamental role in initiating, aggravating and motivating the civil war is clear - one only need acknowledge the number of converts which allied themselves to Calvinism to appreciate this. Yet this neglects the questions invariably thrown up by the study of dissent during the wars; namely the extent to which converts were genuinely motivated by religious concerns. This entails an appreciation of the array of non-religious concerns which were vital ingredients in the conflicts, and demands for there to be constructed a second definition which might enable progress to be made along this route. If, therefore, one defines religion as something suggestive of spiritual belief and conviction, its fundamental role is less clear, for the traditional conclusions reached by historians, whilst never ruling out the importance of true religiosity, have tended to place a great deal of emphasis upon the political, economic and social concerns of the participants of the French Wars."

Tags:calvinism, catherine, de, french, henry, ii, medici, religion, wars