Abstract
This paper discusses the two major waves of economic geography, that is the epistemological wave and the hermeneutic of cultural wave. It also discusses incorporating artisanal production in theory forming in geography and why this is so important to research in geography.

From the Paper
"Artisanal Production and Geography The relationship between art and science has always been a contentious one. In many causes art and artisanal production have been ignored by disciplines wishing to be more scientific. This situation is discussed by Trevor J. Barnes in Retheorizing Economic Geography. Barnes argues that there have been two major waves of economic geography. These are the epistemological and the hermeneutic or cultural wave. The epistemological wave was characterized by a strong reliance on science (Barnes 546). For this reason the social, cultural and artistic were usually not dealt with in economic geography during the first wave."

Tags:artisanal, production, geography

Abstract
This paper explains that Joel Beinin's "Workers and Peasants in the Modern Middle East" begins in 1750, which marks the start of modern history for the Middle East because of (1) the rise of autonomous provincial regimes, (2) the expansion of agricultural production and (3) the intensification of links between several parts of the Ottoman Empire and the world capitalist market. The author points out that Beinin argues that industrial manufacturing was introduced to the Middle East as part of a drive to establish modern armies and extend the power of the states. The paper relates that Beinin considers the period after the collapse of global oil prices in 1985-86, when states became unable to provide previously established levels of services, thus creating an economic and moral vacuum, as the beginning of the political Islamic movements of establishing a popular base by offering social services, including education, health care and child care.

From the Paper
"During the era of Fordism-Keynesianism many Middle Eastern states pursued policies of populism, nationalist anti-imperialism, state-led economic development, and import-substitution industrialization. Some examples of this post-World War II trend he cites were Muhammad Mossadegh's nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in 1951 and Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal Company in 1956. State-led development and import-substitution industrialization were key components of the social policies advanced by Gamal `Abd al-Nasir in Egypt, the Ba`th in Syria and Iraq and the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) from the 1950s to the 1970s. The political and economic programs of these authoritarian-populist regimes were designated "Arab nationalism" and "Arab socialism" respectively."

Tags:fordism-keynesianism, authoritarian-populist, political-islam, petro-dollars, textile

Abstract
This paper considers Ben Franklin to be one of the most important people of his century. The author believes that his contributions shaped America, which changed the world.

Abstract
The paper compares the presidential scandals of Richard Nixon and Bill Clinton. First the paper reviews the Watergate scandal, and explains that this was just the tip of the iceberg, analyzing the machinations behind the break-in and reasons for it and its subsequent cover-up, and finding extensive criminal wrongdoing to be at the heart of the matter. Next, the paper focuses on President Clinton's sexual escapades, and analyzes why the press played up the story yet Clinton survived the impeachment process. Following this, the paper reviews various analyses of presidential personality and public perception, comparing the two Presidents, and focusing finally on the Meyer's Briggs Type Indicator of personality to show that Clinton was an Artisan while Nixon was a Guardian. The American public will, the paper informs us, love an Artisan despite his flaws, but respect a Guardian only in the absence of visible flaws. In conclusion, the paper finds that it is both the public perception of the respective Presidents' personalities, and the presence or absence of criminal wrongdoing, which caused Clinton's name to be praised while Nixon's is derided.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Nixon and Watergate
Clinton and Travel Gate etc.
Presidential Personalities
Conclusion
Footnotes
Bibliography

From the Paper
"History tells us that most likely, Nixon did not know in advance about the break-in and that his press secretary dismissed it as a "third-rate burglary." President Nixon lied when he assured the nation that "The White House has had no involvement in this particular incident". By the time of the press conference, he knew that several present and former White House employees were linked to the Watergate burglars. Nixon already had begun to cover those links by the time he asserted the White House's lack of involvement."

Tags:Watergate, scandal, impeachment, Meyers, Briggs

Abstract
This paper considers how the metaphor of alchemy is a metaphor of becoming, suggesting in terms of psychology that the old dream of turning base metals into gold can serve as a metaphor for changing the personality and for observing the process as it takes place. The nature of this metaphor is stated clearly by Schwartz-Salant (1998) when he writes 'Because alchemy is characterized by a peculiar identification between the alchemist and the material with which he or she works, personal and material transformation are intertwined so closely as to defy their separation'. The paper further discusses how this linkage is part of the complex metaphor of alchemy which accepts the possibility that changes in the personality of the artisan somehow effect changes in the matter with which he or she is working.

Tags:self, personality, psychology

Abstract
This paper discusses how Leonardo's "The Last Supper" exhibits all of the classical elements of Western art and those of the High Renaissance. It looks at how the three major trends of 15th century painting, being monumentality and mathematically ordered space at the expense of movement and the freedom of movement at the expense of monumentality and controlled space, are all harmonized and balanced in "The Last Supper" which stands as the penultimate example of Leonardo da Vinci's long career as a painter and artisan. In addition, the paper discusses and describes the iconography and color scheme of the painting.

From the Paper
"As an artistic rendering, Leonardo's The Last Supper displays an iconography unlike anything else in Western art. In biblical terms, the Last Supper was a rather emotional occasion, due to the apostles being shocked to hear Jesus tell them that one of them would betray him to the Roman authorities. For Leonardo, this emotionally-charged scenario presented him with the opportunity to portray in art "an explosive and dramatic scene and to delve more deeply than he had ever done before into the psychological makeup of his various characters" (Heydenreich, 87). This scenario also stands as a symbolic revelation wherein Jesus tells his disciples that bread symbolizes his physical body and wine symbolizes his blood, both being metaphors which illuminate Jesus' sacrifice of the cross and the remission of the sins of human beings. "

Tags:iconography, jesus, Renaissance

Abstract
This paper contends that Norman Rockwell's work reveals both his ability as an artisan and his ability to limn the important cultural and social concerns of America during his lifetime. It explains that despite the author's views, art critics dismiss his work as being overly sentimental and overly determined. The paper examines the value of this work not as a form of art but rather as a cultural map of much of American 20th-century life.

From the Paper
"Norman Rockwell's work is dismissed by art critics and members of the high art world as being overly sentimental and overly determined. But a closer examination of his work reveals both his artisanship and his ability to ..."

Tags:rockwell, americana

Abstract
This paper looks at the genuine religious motivations and secular concerns, with recourse to the following:
1) Concept of 'clash of faiths' discussed.
2) Networks of clientage facilitating spread of dissent.
3) Individuals expressing religious insincerity.
4) Noble/Artisan divide.
5) Weakness of new kings.
6) Zeal in lower orders.
7) Rites of violence.
8) Calvinism as a binding force and intensifier.

From the Paper
"Any attempt to ascertain the 'role' of religion in the French Wars requires strict definitions in order to succeed, especially given the complexities attached to any examination of the motivations prevalent in the conversions which occurred in France. If one is to define religion as a particular system of faith and worship, then its fundamental role in initiating, aggravating and motivating the civil war is clear - one only need acknowledge the number of converts which allied themselves to Calvinism to appreciate this. Yet this neglects the questions invariably thrown up by the study of dissent during the wars; namely the extent to which converts were genuinely motivated by religious concerns. This entails an appreciation of the array of non-religious concerns which were vital ingredients in the conflicts, and demands for there to be constructed a second definition which might enable progress to be made along this route. If, therefore, one defines religion as something suggestive of spiritual belief and conviction, its fundamental role is less clear, for the traditional conclusions reached by historians, whilst never ruling out the importance of true religiosity, have tended to place a great deal of emphasis upon the political, economic and social concerns of the participants of the French Wars."

Tags:calvinism, catherine, de, french, henry, ii, medici, religion, wars

Abstract
This paper discusses the legacy of Sandro Botticelli, known as one of the best and most spiritually enlightened of the Neo-Platonic Renaissance painters who was eventually hired by the Pope to work on the Sistine Chapel. He was born to an artisan-class family of tanners where his artistic temperament was ignored and started his working career as a goldsmith until he received his first apprenticeship as an artist. Eventually he rose to fame, gained more commissions, both creating panels and the like for rich merchant families and frescoes and other church decorations. He became known for his dreamy and melancholic mythic religiosity and implications of human form and feature and ranked among the greatest of the allegorical and mystical painters of his time.

From the Paper
"Sandro's original apprenticeship as an artist was under the legendary Fra Filippo Lippi. In many ways this was a fortunate choice in masters; Botticelli's mystical and dreamy nature fit well with Lippi's penchant for the ideal and devotional. An apprenticeship in one of the more modern, naturalistic studios might have created a far different Sandro Botticelli, or hidden his actual talent. (Botticelli, 13) Lippi's influence is obvious in most of his student's early work, to such a degree that most of the earliest Botticelli paintings are virtually recreations of Lippi pieces, keeping content and design and scene in common while changing method and form ever so slightly. The resemblance between Botticelli's Madonna Guidi and Lippi's Madonna and Child with Angel is far from accidental."

Tags:medici, neo-platonic, sistine, chapel, pope, vespucci, apprenticeship

Abstract
In this paper the author examines the four conditions that brought about the Renaissance in Italy: geographic location; the rise of Christianity and humanism; the existence of artisan and craftsmen's guilds; the patronage of wealthy nobles and the Papacy. The paper concludes with the idea that the Renaissance began in Italy because at that time and in that place there existed an assortment of conditions that fostered creative thinking, valued the output of genius and rewarded it with money, fame and opportunity.

From the Paper
"One element of the Renaissance is the individual genius of the individual. Great thinkers produced vigorous debate on philosophical issues. The advances made during the period in the fields of science and mathematics were on a par with the most visual artistic achievements of the time. The works of Michelangelo and da Vinci and others remain unmatched by anything in the field of art today. Although the existence of genius may be circumstantial, the existence of so many creative geniuses in one place at one time must be linked to factors that were common to all of them."

Tags:influences, hallmark, venetian, europe, creative, science, mathematics