Abstract This paper examines the history of science in terms of changes in astronomy from the time of Ptolemy to Galileo, based on the book "Science without Limits" by James Perlman. The writer notes how the ancients saw science as a form of philosophy, while by the time of Galileo, observation was being joined with experimentation to examine concepts and find the truth.
From the Paper "The history of astronomy shows the development of science as a discipline from the ancient world to the Renaissance, from the time of Ptolemy to the time of Galileo. Over that period, astronomy began to shift from a philosophy to a science. Science in the ancient world was not created out of whole cloth and was based on observations and the application of reason. Mathematics were also used to develop ideas about the universe. Mathematics is itself an application of reason, though aspects of mathematics have also been developed through observation and testing. By the time of Galileo, however, science was gaining a more experimental structure, and Galileo himself tested many ideas directly. His astronomy was also based on observations, but he was able to observe more directly and closely with the telescope. Perlman notes that "science in large part . . . is a matter of testing assumptions"."
Abstract This paper examines Aristotle's views on politics as compared to Plato's. The author uses Aristotle's work, "Politics" as the basis for this discussion. Quotes are used throughout the paper to exemplify Aristotle's outlook on various philosophical ideas. In particular, his view on the city as opposed to Plato's are contrasted. The author also describes Aristotle's opinion on Greek customs of the past and those practiced in his own day.
From the Paper "Clarence Earl Gideon was tried and convicted in the Fourteenth Judicial Circuit of Florida, in and for Bay County, for the "crime of breaking and entering with the intent to commit a misdemeanor, to wit, petty larceny," and was given a five year prison sentence. In trial court, Gideon maintained that he was entitled to counsel by the state because he couldn't afford his own. In essence, Gideon was asserting that his conviction violated the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which states "No state shall...deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law." The key here being "due process of law." Without the aid and guidance of counsel was Gideon given a fair opportunity to defend himself, and were his due process guarantees were violated? The case on which the Supreme Court ruled on this exact issue was Betts v. Brady, in which they rejected the contention that due process under the Fourteenth Amendment provided a flat guarantee of counsel in state criminal trials (8). "But that did not necessarily make Gideon's petition futile, for the Supreme court never speaks with absolute finality when it interprets the Constitution," and "although he did not know it, Clarence Earl Gideon was calling for one of those great occasions in legal history...by asking the Supreme Court to change its mind" (11)."
Abstract This is a summary of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics that emphasizes Aristotle's big influence in the world of ethics. His work amplifies and analyzes the concepts of many ethical issues. Since his book is divided into ten books, this term paper is also divided into 10 different, complete summaries.
From the paper:
"All knowledge and every pursuit aim at some good. Happiness is directly related to living well and doing well. Happiness is a complete and sufficient good. Most people associate happiness with pleasure. A life of pleasure is what man seeks out. There are three prominent types of lives: the pleasure life, the political life, and the contemplative life. The contemplative life is one, which practices the best activity. The best activity brings perfect happiness. The contemplative life is by far the happiest life. Aristotle explains that the good of anything is to perform its characteristic activity well."
Abstract This paper is a discussion of the book "The Politics" by Aristotle. In this book Aristotle introduces the idea of a middle class, and argues it's significance for the good of mankind. Aristotle argues that the middle class is the most suitable class to be rulers since unlike the rich who do not want anyone to rule them, or the poor, who do not have the means to rule, they live in the middle and have seen the best qualities of both the rich and the poor.
From the paper:
"The poor, conversely, cannot be good rulers because their attributes usually consist of being overly indigent, weak, or lacking in honor. These qualities make it difficult for the poor to follow reason, and they usually become malicious and base in petty ways. If the malicious were given the entitlement to rule, it seems that their hateful and wicked ways would cause a tyrannical, or master/slave society. As was said before, the poor are full of envy for the rich and could, perhaps, attempt to revenge on those they resent. Either the rich or the poor can commit Acts of injustice. Whether it is through arrogance or malice, both are groups likely to act against the best interest of the city. The middling class must rule because both the rich and the poor, if given the claim to rule, are likely to cause nothing but injury to the cities."
This paper analyzes Aristotle's 'Doctrine of the Mean,' as laid out in "Nicomachean Ethics" and examines, in detail, its application in this philosopher's "Politics".
Abstract Examining the texts of Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" and "Politics" side by side, one finds parallels between his reasoning with regard to the individual and to the state. This paper shows that, in "Nicomachean Ethics," Aristotle discusses happiness, virtue, and the good life on an individual level and lays out necessary provisions for the good life of a person. He maintains that virtue is a necessary element of happiness, but this requirement of virtue for the happy life goes beyond the individual level, as we see it in "Politics". There, this paper shows, Aristotle claims that man is by nature a "political animal," and for that reason, he can only achieve the above-mentioned virtues as part of a state. Since the city is formed by many individuals, the virtue of the state is constituted by the individual virtues of its citizens. This paper shows, therefore, that fulfillment of requirements for the happy life of an individual, namely being virtuous and self-sufficient, is equally necessary for the state as a whole in order to be happy. We thus see that the virtue of a state is directly linked to the virtue of an individual, and therefore, the means of achieving the former will run parallel with those of the latter.
From the Paper "Aristotle's discussion of ownership of property early in the book gives us another perspective on the Doctrine of the Mean in regard to the state. Answering the question whether property has to be owned in common or privately, he criticizes the communism of property suggested by Plato in "The Republic" as one extreme that does result its best use. If the produce of work is to be shared equally whereas contribution to the production is unequal among individuals, "complaints are bound to arise between those who ... take much but work little and those who take less but work more." Such communism is thus viewed as a source of discontent and quarrels among the population, proving not to be the best use of property."
Abstract This paper examines polity as Aristotle's third best kind of regime. The author points out what factors justify Aristotle's ranking it neither higher nor lower than he does. The paper relates Aristotle's belief that government should be impartial and concerned with the common good.
From the Paper "According to Aristotle, polity is the third best regime. What is polity and what factors justify Aristotle's ranking it neither higher nor lower than he does? Polity is the third best of the better kinds of regimes according to Aristotle, ranking below monarchy ..."
Abstract In this paper the writer compares and contrasts the moral philosophy in the works of Marx and Aristotle. The writer examines the contributions of Engels and Marx and of Aristotle to the nature of morality. The writer also discusses the differing methods of Aristotle and Marx.
From the Paper "The purpose of this research is to examine the contributions of Marx and Engels on one hand and Aristotle on the other with regard to the nature of morality. The research will set forth the discourse context for the issue and then discuss how the two approaches to analyzing morality coincide and how they differ with a view toward identifying and evaluating the significance and influence of these commentators on the discourse of morality. At first glance it seems that Aristotle and Marx can have very little in common ... "
Abstract The paper seeks to demonstrate that Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics is a treatise on the relationship between human happiness and human nature. To show this, the writer first explains how Aristotle connects human nature to his function argument and what either of those has to do with happiness. Then the writer analyzes the place of virtue in Aristotle's happiness, a place that draws heavily on the role of virtue in human nature. Finally, the writer discuss how happiness can be joined to a life of study under this Aristotelian perspective.
From the Paper "According to Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics, the realization of human happiness is intimately tied up with Aristotle's own conception of the extent of human nature. In the book, Aristotle makes a relatively sophisticated argument that examines the nature of human nature in terms of function and the goal of human existence. From this, Aristotle is able to analyze the role that virtues play in achieving happiness and the significance of a life of study and contemplation. In short, I intend to demonstrate that Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics is a treatise on the relationship between human happiness and human nature. To show this, I will first explain how Aristotle connects human nature to his function argument--and what either of those have to do with happiness."
Abstract In this paper, the writer draws comparisons between the philosophies of Aristotle and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, an 18th century German philosopher. The paper describes these men as seeing the process of human thought as linked to history and politics. Additionally, the paper explains that Aristotle and Hegel viewed human thought itself as a process which involved a system of logic. The author argues that Aristotle's beliefs perhaps laid the groundwork for the much later ideas of Hegel, and the influence of both men's philosophies on thought, logic, and politics influenced people and schools of thought for years after their deaths.
From the Paper "Aristotle believed in the power of experience and the observation of the world around us. His work in the field of logic outlasted his time period and he even named the field of study. Aristotle "systematized logic, working out which forms of inference were valid and which invalid--in other words, what really does follow from what, and what only appears to but doesn't really; and he gave all these different forms of inference names. For two thousand years the study of logic was to mean the study of Aristotle's logic" (Magee 34). This concept of a logical study of the world was taken up by Hegel in the 18th and 19th centuries. Like Aristotle, he believed in a logical progression of change and development toward reality and self-awareness. "He saw everything as having developed. Everything that exists is the outcome of a process; and therefore, he thought, understanding in any broad area of reality always involves understanding a process of change" (Magee 159). Hegel was known to be among the most systematic of the philosophers in the period of "German idealism" and "attempted, throughout his published writings as well as in his lectures, to elaborate a comprehensive and systematic ontology from a 'logical' starting point" (Redding 1)."
Abstract This paper discusses the philosophy of good life given by the great thinker Aristotle. It looks at Aristotle's view that there are certain external and internal goods available to man, and it is through the attainment of internal goods that man is able to live a life that can be identified as a "good life".
From the Paper "Aristotle was the prized student of Socrates and his works though are not widely available are still considered to be of great significant to the world of euphemism. The philosophical thought is incomplete without the works of Aristotle as his contribution is huge and some of his views are studies even today by the students of philosophy. Aristotle's theory of a good life is based one certain actions and virtues which fall in the realm of ethics. It was the view of Aristotle that good life means a man should act while in possession of certain external goods. By this it means that one should possess all moral and intellectual virtues in order to qualify as someone with a good life. The moral virtues to him were prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance. All these virtues are based on reason and it was the Aristotelian view that reason and logic should be given precedence over passion. Intellectual virtues are based on pure theoretical contemplation and they cannot be considered very practical as they seem to arise from Aristotle's views on logic and a Stoic philosophy which meant that man must first not act purely on impulse or passion but should think carefully before acting."
Abstract This essay is a comparison study of the works and views of Plato and Aristotle. The author explains that one of the basic ideas that these two great minds disagreed on was the value of art and of poetry, especially the merits of the Greek tragedy. Aristotle believed that art in all of its forms was a beneficial and necessary outlet for the expression of man's innermost feelings and fears. On the other hand, Plato condemned art and poetry. This paper examines the different ways in which these two great minds interpreted the arts and their purpose allows for a greater understanding of the workings of these two great minds and the two great channels of philosophical thought which they produced.
From the Paper "Three and a half centuries before the birth of Christ, an ancient Athenian known as Plato expressed this negative view of the value of poetry and the arts in an essay he called The Republic. To the occupants of ancient Greece, drama and tragedy were considered part of the poetic arts, and to Plato, the most revered and respected of ancient Grecian philosophers, poetry and art misrepresent heroes, encouraged moral weakness and went against the principles of his notion of the ideal polis, or state. In The Republic, Plato condemns not only the value of poetry, but also the value of art in general. This condemnation was eventually to be refuted in the year 350 BC in an essay entitled The Poetics, an essay written by Plato's philosophical prot?g?, Aristotle."
Abstract This paper examines the philosophies of Plato with those of Aristotle with an emphasis on the differences between each philosopher's view of the soul and knowledge. The writer shows how Aristotle's view of the soul is superior to Plato's view of the soul because it deals with a more complex soul.
From the Paper "In The Apology and The Phaedo, Plato uses his mentor Socrates to express his views about many different philosophical ideas. These two scenes occur during the trial of Socrates and during the time before his death. In The Apology, Socrates is on trial and is defending himself against his accusers, which charge him with corrupting the youth and not believing in the Gods. It is during this time that Socrates agues for the existence of the soul and the body. Plato develops his idea of the soul further in The Phaedo, which presents the scene of Socrates's death. He uses this scene to discuss the topics that were raised earlier in The Apology. Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics develops his ideas of the soul. The soul's complexity, for Aristotle, demonstrates better how the soul relates to knowledge justly, particularly when compared to Plato's justification of the knowledge the soul has."
Abstract This eight-page undergraduate paper examines Aristotle's view of women. Aristotle held a very repressive view, although he intended most of his discussion in a general way. Feminist responses to his view are included.
Abstract The paper examines the ways in which morality of both Aristotle's and Paul's schools of thought come together in modern America. It looks at how Aristotle's idea of reason, or "logos," must be taught and then be used in the real world. It then moves on to Paul, who believes that morality must be gained by giving oneself completely to God. The paper finally looks at how modern America has brought these two schools of thought together.
From the Paper "Do to others as you would have them do to you," is something we have all heard in some form or another at some point in our lives. To put it another way would be to treat people how you would want to be treated. This simple rule can be seen as the foundation, the beginning of many people's moral code, which they will use for the rest of their lives. It will guide their decision-making processes from the simplest choices like whether or not to tell a white lie, and all the way up to life and death situations. The question is how do we come to those decisions that can have such far-reaching consequences and feel comfortable that we have made the right, or shall we say the best decision? Are moral decisions based on the rules we have been taught by our parents, the laws of society, the consequences of an action, or a more deep desire to promote goodness in the world in which we live in? There has been a countless number of people who have attempted to define the moral code. Aristotle believed that one learns morality through philosophy and then actually using it in the real world. The apostle Paul thought that one should follow God's will, or moral code, out of love and faith. Modern America can see a convergence of these two schools of thought, which form our morality. Our morality comes from learning through our parents, religion, and the society around us where by repetition of these rules we are able to base our decisions on these principles, which are ultimately used with our natural reason."
Abstract This article provides a comparison and contrast of the ethical ideas of Jean-Paul Sartre and Aristotle. The writer discusses the radically different approaches of Aristotle from the ancient Greek period and Sartre from the post-modern period. The writer examines the concept of human responsibility in both philosophers.
From the Paper "Ethical Philosophy Resolution or Paradox Moral experience which is to say human experience is loaded with paradox, because moral and ethical choices do not always present an opportunity to choose simply between good and evil. Instead one chooses between good and good or in the familiar phrase between the lesser of two evils. The history of philosophy, which one might think should supply resolution to the confusions and dilemmas of life does nothing so much as ask new and even more vexed questions. And these are questions that ... "
