Abstract
Ferdinand of Aragon is represented both directly and indirectly in the text. Ferdinand of Aragon is one of the few characters whom Machiavelli openly compliments. However, as the research demonstrates, Ferdinand of Aragon is indirectly mentioned in several instances that contradict the praises openly bestowed upon him. Ferdinand of Aragon is often referred to as Ferdinand the Catholic. The research supports the thesis that when Machiavelli speaks of Ferdinand of Aragon, he his actually expressing his political views about he Catholic Church as a whole. Furthermore, the research demonstrates how Machiavelli uses Ferdinand of Aragon and passages about other prominent figures in the Catholic Church to express ideals regarding the separation of church and state that will eventually lay the ground work for many modern political ideas.

From the Paper
"Prior to the time of Machiavelli, Italy had lived in a period of stability and peace. To many the Catholic Church symbolized this peace. The Catholic Church was the governing force in the area. During the time of Machiavelli, many people began to see the corruption and greed the enveloped the supposedly pious leaders of the time. During the time of Machiavelli, the people began to view the Church as a symbol of greed and corrupt power. However, at that time the Church held so much power that it was dangerous to speak out against the Church. To do so could be dangerous and the person ran the risk of persecution or excommunication.
Many writers of the time wished to express their opinions and the opinions of those who disagreed with the Church. Dante's Inferno is a classic example of this technique. In this work the characters on the road to Hell embodied principles, rather than the actual persons represented. The ideals were hidden metaphorically in the characteristics and lives of the characters. Machiavelli used this technique also and Ferdinand of Aragon is one of the primary examples of the use of metaphor to describe the Catholic Church."

Tags:catholic, church, constitution

Abstract
Catherine of Aragon, first wife of Henry VIII and the youngest daughter of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, was born in 1485. This paper examines her life and role in history, including her days as an educated princess in Spain, her marriage to Henry, and his subsequent divorce from her after she failed to provide him with an heir.

From the Paper
"In July of 1533, Henry ordered Catherine to Buckden in Huntingdonshire,
where she remained until her death. He also ordered that she should not be treated as a queen, but as a "dowger princess". Catherine loved Henry until the end, and refused to believe that the marriage was over. Just before she died, she wrote a letter to Henry, addressing him as ""My most dear lord, king and husband"...and signing the letter "I make this vow, that mine eyes desire you above all things"" (Mattingly, pg. 308). Catherine of Aragon was destined to marry a king and until her death she continued to believe she was still Henry's queen."

Tags:Duke, of, York, Anne, Boleyn

From the Paper
"Garrett Mattingly, in Catherine of Aragon, aims to create a more complex and significant portrait of Catherine and her life than previously drawn by others:
[I]t was borne in upon me that the Queen Catherine
. . . was a different person, more cultured and thoughtful, more forceful and decisive, than the one I had read about elsewhere. . . . (i).
Catherine has been portrayed as a woman whose significance was measured almost entirely by her relationship with men, with Henry, with the Pope, with the need of others for her to bear a son, or as a rival to Ann Boleyn for Henry's affections. She is often seen as a person who had little to contribute aside from child-bearing, aside from her marriage, aside from her role as symbolic leader."

Tags:book, review, non-fiction, biography

Abstract
This is a historiography paper that judges the opinions of scholars on the topic of Henry VIII's first divorce from the 1500s to the present. It traces the evolution of religious arguments, feminist criticism, trends in objectivity or subjectivity and the central issues emphasized. Documents used include those written by King Henry VIII himself in justification of his actions, Protestants writing to defeat their church and beliefs against the catholic counter-reformation, a 19th century female scholar more sensitive to Catherine's position and a variety of modern scholars emphasizing the diversity of scholarship available in the present day.

From the Paper
"Authors in the nineteenth century placed greater importance on Henry's desire to have a male heir. Mrs. Hope describes Henry's despair at having Catherine bear him three sons, only for them to die soon after birth . She believes that he knew his only hope for a son lay in divorcing Catherine and marrying a younger wife, even though it would lead to a quarrel with her nephew the Emperor. Hope also finds proof of Henry's desire when, at the birth of Princess Elizabeth in 1533, he expressed disappointment. Writing from a Catholic point of view, it is easier for Hope to reconcile herself with Henry's choices being driven by political ends, then to suggest the King was disappointed with his faith. J.A. Founde agrees that the problem of succession was of utmost importance at the time to Henry. He points out that in the previous century a disputed succession had led to a civil war, and that during Henry's reign people were aware that if the King should die without an heir the war of the Roses might be renewed."

Tags:protestants, heir, catholics, marriage, anne, boleyn

From the Paper
"The purpose of this research is to examine why Thomas More, chancellor of England at the time of Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn, refused to support Henry's request for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and remarriage to Boleyn. The plan of the research will be to set forth the essential elements of the conflict, including the issues that confronted the major players, and then to discuss, with reference to the text of contemporaneous documents of church and state, More's position as articulated in them and in More's public and private correspondence.


The essential elements of the conflict over More's refusal to support the annulment can be seen in the wide context of conflicting spiritual and political priorities that dominated Europe during the Renaissance, and in the narrower context of...:

Abstract
In this article, the writer first looks at the immediate circumstances in which Henry VIII first conceived the idea of divorce from Catherine. The paper then points out that there were also other surrounding factors that must be taken into consideration when considering whether Henry VIII's break with Rome really was driven by Henry's sole desire for divorce. The paper points out that some scholars say the role of Cardinal Wolsey, the king's advisor, was crucial in so far as he supposedly suggested the plan to the King himself; some point to the influence of Anne Boleyn and Catherine of Aragon on his decisions; still others believe that the broader force of anti-clericalism ultimately played an important part since it helped transform a mere issue of divorce into one of a conflict between Church and State. The paper concludes that despite all these important factors, the chief factor for the break with Rome can be found with Henry himself and in his undoubted passion for Anne whose role in shoring up Henry's affection towards her and determination for the cause was far from unimportant in a desire that resulted in England rejecting the authority of the papacy.

Outline:
Introduction
The Strength of Henry's Desire
The Influence of Anne Boleyn
The Place of Anti-clericalism
Conclusions

From the Paper
"More fundamentally, it is questionable whether the Cardinal himself really did have intentions to become Pope. When Wolsey did obtain a position as a Cardinal in Rome, he frequently absented himself away from the place, even declining recommendations that he should go for his own benefit. Following accusations that his titular Church of St Cicilia was involved with embezzlement, he hardly exuded an air of concern about this as reflecting badly on his character and hence his potential candidacy. Nor did he make any serious attempt at cultivating a network of people on whom he could rely when it came to electing a Pope. Realistically, there was only one influential supporter, Campeggio, an acquaintance merely by virtue of him being a legate in England. Otherwise, Wolsey half-heartedly looked to minor figures that could not be expected to hold real clout. Even Silvestro Gigli, a diplomat, was treated rather indifferently in the role of go-between with Rome, so that Gigli was frequently moved to complain that Wolsey was not keeping him, and thus Rome, informed about developments in England."

Tags:Anne, Boleyn, Catherine, of, Aragon, marriage

Abstract
This paper explains that Euskera was once spoken in Aragon and West Catalonia as far back as the 7th century and, in the 9th and 10th centuries, through mass migration, it reached south of Alava. The author points out that the decline of this language was partly due to decisions made concerning the supremacy of Spanish during the Bourbon period of the 18th Century, which stigmatized Euskera as being only suitable for farmers and peasants whereas Spanish was used exclusively in education and instruction. The paper concludes that Euskera, the Basque language, is almost without monolingual speakers but whether it is doomed extinction is debatable. The paper includes some long quotations.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
An Historical Overlook of Euskera
Spanish and French Attitudes Concerning the Basque Language
Protecting Euskera
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Industrialization also played its part during the 19th century. The need for workers resulted in mass immigration and saw the arrival of so many monolingual Spanish speakers that their numbers far outweighed those of the Basque speakers. The fact that the Spanish speakers moved into several areas where the language had already been lost and the fact that the Franco government prohibited the use of Euskera, both helped to ensured that the language would become endangered."

Tags:immigration, monolingual, spanish, aragon, stigmatize

Abstract
Born on March 10, 1452, at Sos in Aragon, Ferdinand V was the son of John II of Aragon and Juana Enriquez of Castile. This paper shows that as Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain and the husband of Isabella I, heiress apparent to the Castilian crown, this dynamic monarch laid the foundations of Spanish unity and imperial power. The paper explores how Ferdinand was instrumental in the "discovery" of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and the introduction of Spanish power in the "New World" which altered the entire history of the Western hemisphere.

From the Paper
"In Aragon, Ferdinand approached his problems connected with Catalonia in a more constitutional way. The Sentence of Guadalupe in 1486 offered a compromise solution to the difficult peasant question in Catalonia, where the municipalities were assured a degree of autonomy. In Catalonia, the king remained essentially what he had been in medieval times, namely a supreme lord but with strict limits on his powers. But in Castile, the Crown was in a position to exercise absolute power, while in Catalonia and throughout Aragon, power was limited by the traditional contractual relationship. This contrast was to be profoundly important for the later history of the two Crowns and lay at the root of the major rebellions, especially that of 1591, that the citizens of Aragon were to undertake against Castile."

Tags:Inquisition, Reconquest, Celestina

Abstract
This paper reconstructs the crash of American Airlines Flight 965, which departed Miami International Airport, Miami, Florida, in route to Alfonso Bonilla Aragon International Airport in Cali, Colombia on the night of December 20, 1995. It examines in detail the human and environmental factors that caused the events. The paper lists suggestions made by the National Transportation Safety Board to improve flight safety and prevent such accidents in the future. In conclusion, however, the paper point out that the overwhelming majority of these changes have not been implemented because of the politics involving admitting fault and determining which party (or parties) was ultimately responsible. Instead of focusing on changes that have the potential to positively impact the greater good, the legal departments of the different companies involved must actively work to shield themselves from potential lawsuits from victims' families.

Table of Contents:
Introduction - Factual Account of Events
Environmental Factors
Human Factors
Hardware
Software
Strange and Unusual Occurrences
NTSB Recommendations and Recent Changes
Appendix (includes diagrams and photographs)

From the Paper
"The environment on American Airlines flight 965 to Cali, Columbia was in a state of constant change. Many factors affected the flight situation and helped provide a setting without situational awareness. Several environments constituted the flight. At times, it was one of confusion, one of pressure because of a time constraint, one with lack of equipment in Cali, unawareness of terrain, inadequate preparation, communication breakdowns, and lack of pilot experience."

Tags:airplane, accident, pilot

Abstract
This paper offers an extensive discussion on the effects of the permeation of state authority into English village life. The paper focuses on the village of Morebath and explains the resistance to the shift from Catholicism to Protestantism. It claims that the process of Protestantization came, not because of a pure theological dispute that involved the common people, but because of a power struggle between King Henry VIII and the Pope over the king's right to gain an annulment from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon.

From the Paper
"From the reign of Henry VIII to Elizabeth I, England experienced a gradual, but ultimately seismic shift in the way that the population was permitted to worship, could experience the divine in terms of their religious practices, expressed their religious views, and the ways they could relate to their institutions of belief. At first, "the Catholic world-view...was the religion of most English people on the eve of the Reformation." (Duffy 2) When "Martin Luther's attack on the Catholic Church and the authority of the Pope first began to spread outside Germany" England stood apart from the fray and Henry VIII was called the 'defender of the faith' by the reigning Pope. (Duffy 84) But Catholic England was reborn under the guiding hand of Elizabeth I into a moderate, officially Protestant land where the monarch was the head of the church, not the pope"

Tags:religion, Christianity, Britain, power, struggle