Abstract
The paper defines and analyzes Arab Christianity, giving an overview of the history of the upper Middle East before the invasion of Arabic Islam. The paper asserts that today, the term "Arab Christian" has become as complicated as the diversity of nations in the regions themselves, and Arab Christians today are not recognized for their distinct ethnic identity. The paper clarifies that they are instead seen as segments of a wider nation who are also Christian, while the "real" Arab Christians, as identified by Phares, live in areas among the Jordan, Syrian, Israelite, and Palestinian territories. These people, the paper notes, are the descendants of the Arab Christians who survived the invasion of Islam during ancient times, as well as the product of evangelization. The paper concludes that although the Middle East is still dominated and oppressed by Islam and its adherents, the rest of the world is becoming more tolerant and informed regarding the belief systems and cultures of others, and intolerance has become largely unacceptable.

From the Paper
"The history of the upper Middle East before the invasion of Arabic Islam is one of Christianization. Specifically, the nations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Sudan, Asia Minor, Syria, and Lebanon were Christianized. Only the ancient Israelites retained their original religious identity. The majority of nations in Arabia were pagan at the time, of which many subsequently converted to Christianity. The Jews were then dispersed by the Romans, with some Christians moving from the north and East to Palestine. The result was that the majority of the upper Middle East was not Arab, but they were indeed Christian. Furthermore, Phares notes that many Arabs in the Peninsula were Christian, and this is where the term "Arab Christianity" originates. It refers to people of Arabic origin, whose religion is Christianity. The issue and term were however complicated by subsequent political and social developments.
"While the non-Arab Christians were reduced and suppressed by the invasion of Arab Islam by both violence and semantics, as mentioned above. The actual Arab Christians at the time of Christianization were defeated during the onset of Islam. They were erased from Arabia and their churches either destroyed or converted to Mosques. Very few of them survived in areas such as southern Iraq, southern Syria, and northwest Arabia. Some Arab Christians moved to Palestine, joining the non-Arab Christians in the region. Currently there are the non-Arab Middle Eastern Christians and Arab Christians in Palestine."

Tags:Palestine Islam Jordan Syria, Middle East

Abstract
This paper states that, although there are significant political, cultural, historical and geographical aspects of the dispute over the "Holy Land", the Israeli-Arab conflict is based on deeply rooted religious beliefs and attitudes held on all sides. The author stresses it is essential to understanding of the basic beliefs of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, their similarities and differences, conditions for the permissibility of war and killing and the significance of the Holy Land. The paper concludes that when religion is involved a peaceful reconciliation can come from the differing faiths only when their interests are combined.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Judaism
Christianity
Islam
Conclusions: Is Peace Possible?

From the Paper
"Islam shares some key beliefs with the other two faiths. For example, Muslims believe in the total "unity" of God much like in the Jewish faith. Further, Muslims also share the same Prophets with Judaism and Christianity. These include Adam, Noah, Moses, Isaac, Jacob, and Jesus (whom they regard as a prophet, and not divine). Further, they also believe that Jesus was born of a virgin birth just as in Christianity. Even in areas of practice, Islam shares some striking similarities with the other faiths. For example, Muslims do not eat pork (like observant Jews), and they also share many of the same moral rules (no sex outside of marriage, the prohibition of killing and stealing, etc.). However, Islam differs radically from Judaism and Christianity in that it does not allow the drinking of alcohol, does not observe the Sabbath on the same day, and considers Jewish and Christian believers to be in grave error due to their rejection of Jesus and Muhammad as legitimate prophets."

Tags:resolution, terrorists, arab-christian, muslim, judaism

Abstract
The paper provides a detailed assessment of the Arab/Israeli conflict and its influence on tension between the Islamic world and the West. The paper examines a number of religious factors and issues such as the status of Jerusalem and its importance in Islamic tradition which, it contends, is the primary reason for Muslim antipathy towards Israel. According to the paper, it is the West's consistent support of Israeli that has ultimately caused the resurgence of anti western sentiment in the Arab Muslim world and terrorism.

From the Paper
"The historical relationship between the Muslim world and the West has often been one of enmity and distrust. Moreover, in recent years the divisions have appeared to become more protracted and divisive. In definitional terms it is sometimes problematic to use ambiguous terms like Muslim and Western 'Worlds'. However, it is nonetheless important to note that that the history of relations between the two has invariably been characterised by "continuing and deeply conflictual relations between Islam and Christianity".
"This historical tendency towards disagreement and division has manifested itself in a number of ways. Central among these is the ongoing conflict between Israel and her Arab neighbours which since the establishment of the Israeli state in 1948 has come to personify the lasting nature of disagreement between Islam and the West. Moreover, although some academic authorities have attempted to play down its significance; it is certainly possible to see the manner in which religious motivation has often formed the foundation on which age old tensions rest. As such, any assessment of the modern conflict between Israel and the Arabs must ultimately be based on a religious foundation whilst simultaneously accounting for other factors."

Tags:islam, christianity, jerusalem, arab, prophets, religious

Abstract
This paper relates that Amin Maalouf used Arab chroniclers, diarists and historians of which were several first-hand accounts to write the story of the Crusades from the perspective of the Arabs. The paper points out that, in his book "The Crusades through Arab Eyes", Maalouf writes about the brutal behavior of the crusaders towards both Jews and Muslims particularly in the sacred city of Jerusalem. The paper explains that the book indicates that several comparative accounts differ about Muslim and Christian rule, especially in the Muslim capture of the crusader states such as Edessa and Antioch.

Table of Contents:
Sources
Chapters I-III
Chapters VIII-IX
Chapter X-XI

From the Paper
"The Zengi sultanate was established by Imad ed-Din Zengi, the Seljuk governor of Mosul in 1127. He also ruled over Northern Syria and Iraq as well as Aleppo. In 1144, Imad ed-Din Zengi captured the county of Edessa, the first crusader state to be established by the armies of the First Crusade. His capture of Edessa had then made Imad ed-Din Zengi a hero in the Muslim world but this was short-lived as he was soon killed by a slave in 1146. The territories under Zengi's ruling were then divided between his two sons."

Tags:invasion first-hand, salah al-din, captives zengi

Abstract
This essay provides an analysis of Amin Maalouf's "The Crusades Through Arab Eyes". A number of issues related to the Crusades from the Arab perspective are provided, including both Christian and Muslim leaders, goals, successes, and failures.

From the Paper
"In Amin Maalouf's "The Crusades Through Arab Eyes", the Lebanese journalist offers an account of the Crusades from the Arab perspective. The Crusades occurred at a time when Arab culture was viewed by the West as sophisticated and advanced compared to the Franj Franks or all Westerners, who were unrefined in comparison, amounting to a reversal of modern perspective. Likewise, Maalouf's account demonstrates that the Crusades were a turning point in Arab-Muslim history. To whit, parochialism in the Middle East..."

Tags:Constantinople, Jerusalem, Islam, military conflict, Mamluks, Holy Land, Saladin, Richard the Lionhearted, pilgrims

Abstract
This paper evaluates the difficulties in the legislation of the immigration policy in the United States in the light of September 11 2001 which seem to be exacerbated by an apparent gap between Judeo-Christian and Islamic ethics and how this gap divides both Western and Arabic cultures. It examines whether there is a common ethic that defines both cultures and whether Judeo-Christian and Islamic ethics come from a common source.

From the Paper
"Certainly, the immigration policies of the United States have long been seen as racist and exclusionary. Critics have argued that America's recent war on terror has resulted in an increasingly racist and exclusive system. Certainly, the US government must attempt to stop terrorists like those from the Al Qaeda group of Osama bin Laden from entering into the United States. However, critics argue that all Islamic people are being painted with the same brush, and the US immigration policies simply reflect the fundamental differences between Judeo-Christian and Islamic countries. "

Tags:9/11, government, terrorists, god, racism, cultural, bias

Abstract
The view of non-Roman Christians as constructed by Roman Christians is examined in this paper through three texts. The first two are texts by anonymous authors, both translated by Kenneth B. Wolf and dated 750 and 850, respectively. These two texts represent two widely diverse views of the Muslim faith and the Arab people. The third text concerns the view of the Greek Orthodoxy and is translated by Ernest F. Henderson.

From the Paper
"The initial Roman intention was to achieve peace by means of a marriage between Otto II and a Greek princess. Despite the fact that Liutprand arrives in peace as an emissary to conduct negotiations, by his account, his reception is nothing short of hostile and even barbaric: Liutprand and his companions were held prisoner without food or drink, and in terrible conditions (Henderson, 1910, p. 442). Things never improve throughout the narrative, and the Greeks; most especially the orthodoxy, are shown to be stingy and hypocritical: "In all Greece - I speak truly and do not lie - I found no hospitable bishops. They are at the same time poor and rich; rich in gold, with which they play from full coffers; poor in servants and implements." (Henderson, 1910, p. 475)."

Tags:Walid, Visigoth, Muhammad, Liutprand

Abstract
This paper examines the issue of identity among the Maronite Christians in Lebanon, providing first a brief historical background and then discussing how they have pursued various strategies for determining for themselves who it is that they are. The primary Maronite group is a Christian community of Arabs centered in Lebanon and in communion with the Pope. Smaller Maronite groups also exist in Cyprus, Palestine, Syria, and the United States, with a total number throughout the world of about 1.3 million. It examines how the self discovery process is especially difficult since they are the minority in their own culture surrounded by majority groups who are overtly hostile towards them.

From the Paper
"The group's roots lie in the seventh century when members adhered to the (then) heresy of Monothelitism. Monothelitism was the belief--which was held in conformity to traditional Christian doctrine--that Christ had two distinct natures, divine and human, but also held that the two natures are manifested in a single will and activity. The doctrine of Monothelitism was first promulgated about 624 by Byzantine emperor Heraclius, in an attempt to reconcile the orthodox point of view that Christ has two natures, with the heretical belief of the Monophysites that he has but one. By this reconciliation Heraclius hoped to bring back into the church the thousands of Monophysites who had been excommunicated for heresy. The result of the promulgation of Monothelitism, however, was not greater unity in the church and empire, but further division, as is so often the case with such well-meaning compromises."

Tags:pope, monothelitism, islam, druze

Abstract
This paper reviews Richard Fletcher's book, "The Cross and the Crescent," which presents a history of the relations between Muslims and Christians. The reviewer sees Fletcher's work as coming at an opportune times, since today the West often feels a sense of hysteria regarding anything related to Islam. The reviewer sees the "The Cross and the Crescent" as providing important information about Islamic civilization and culture, presenting the Arab world in a more comprehensive way. The reviewer also describes the Muslim view of the Christian world, and concludes by citing Fletcher's opinion that both cultures influenced each other.

From the Paper
"Fletcher's book focuses on the attitude that the Muslims had regarding to the Christians and vice-versa more than to purely historical aspects. For example, he pays not so much attention to the historical events of the crusades, but to the effect they had on the Muslim population. The book provides a valuable insight to Islam and to the relations between Islam and Christianity."

Tags:Cross, and, the, Crescent, Richard, Fletcher, Christianity, Islam, West

Abstract
This paper shows that there were few reasons for the millet, and later the tanzimat, to fail. The first and most important was the intolerance of Ottoman Muslims towards the other religions in the Empire. It explains that, while the earlier Arab empires tolerated foreigners and non-believers, Ottomans effectively shut Christians out of the society. Second, the Ottoman Empire failed to reform together with its European counterparts, forever remaining an inefficient feudal and militaristic regime with the Sultan holding an absolute power. The writer concludes that religious and ethnic tolerance in a society of that kind are simply impossible to achieve.

From the Paper
"The millet system that the Ottoman Empire introduced to its conquered territories has often been presented as the perfect solution for peaceful coexistence between the ethnically, racially and religiously different peoples in its lands. This misconception has enjoyed especially high popularity in the West. In order to accommodate the new geopolitical realities - a modern Turkey that is one of America's staunchest allies, a member of NATO, and a candidate for an admission to the European Union - the West has turned a blind eye on Turkey's bloody history and its continuous history of human rights violations."

Tags:turkish