Abstract This paper states that communication apprehension is a problem for much of the population. The paper then goes on to analyze communication apprehension in a group of teachers using relevant theoretical concepts and perspectives. The paper also makes recommendations on how the problem can be resolved, based on interpersonal communication perspectives. The paper reviews the literature relating to communication apprehension and states that there are differences to consider in the manner in which males and females communicate.
Outline:
Introduction
Communication Apprehension Examined
Characteristics Of Communication Anxiety
Six Typical Cognitive Distortions Identified
Strategies For Coping With Communication Apprehension Peer Feedback: Enabling Communication Skills
Differences In The Way Males And Females Communicate
Summary & Conclusion
From the Paper "The work of Horwitz entitled: "Communication Apprehension: Origins and Management" states that the "treatment of communication apprehension is a natural fit for speech-language pathologists because many patients with clearly diagnosed communication disorders have anxiety about communicating that may or not may not be related to their presenting problems. In addition, speaking anxiety is a common universal problem among people without communication disorders." These reasons according to Horwitz, is convincing that ..."the study of communication apprehension warrants the attention of speech-language pathologists who can, with additional training, easily develop the expertise to treat the multitude of people who suffer from this problem." (2001) Horwitz relates that the work of Marshall (1994) states findings that thirty percent to forty percent "of the general population considered public speaking their number one fear, surpassing fears of heights, sickness, loneliness, and the dark."
Abstract This paper researches the phenomenon of what is known as communication apprehension or anxiety. Communicative apprehension is defined as "an individual's level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons". This paper takes an in-depth look at this issue.
Outline:
I. Introduction
Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA)
Communication Apprehension The difference between state CA and trait CA
II. Body
Culture
Gender
III. Future directions
IV. Conclusion
From the Paper "Based on the earlier description of self and other perceptions, as well as actual behavioral results, one can surmise that generally, high CA can be a detriment to those experiencing it in an organizational context. Using this information as a base, one may also posit that experiencing high RA in the organizational environment will elicit similar outcomes. Some researchers have suggested that because of the information that has been found regarding apprehension in organizations, it would be unlikely to find highly apprehensive individuals in advanced positions within a company. Although it has been discovered that high CA people were less likely to desire advancement, and less likely to perceive themselves as likely to advance within the organization, there are no empirical data that indicate these feelings and beliefs are consistent with actual outcomes.
Culture
The first valencing factor consists of social and cultural norms. If cultural norms dictate greater spatial boundaries, less touch, and so forth, then individuals from these cultures are likely to valence such norm violations negatively. Parents even articulate immediacy norms with verbal commands (e.g., don't stare, don't push) so that learning of these norms is facilitated. "
This paper provides a research proposal that suggests the development of a Web page to assist individuals with the issue of communication apprehension.
Abstract In this article, the writer explains that the focus of the proposed research is to develop a Web page, which defines communication apprehension and which describes the effects of communication apprehension in group meetings. The writer describes that this involves the individual visiting the Web page and taking a self-administered, self-scoring test and then reviewing the information and self-help tools provided on the Web page. The writer points out that this Web page will enable communication among team-members allowing them to overcome communication apprehension and engage in communication that is reciprocal and effective. The writer maintains that research has shown that effective communication cannot take place within a group setting in which individuals have apprehension about communicating with one another.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Project Focus
Project Structure
Project Presentation
Brief Review of the Literature
From the Paper "The Web page will be presented in English and designed for employees whose organizations are moving toward or functioning in a team-based environment. A prototype will be used to develop the site and, as the developer. The researcher in this work will hold the responsibility for maintenance and necessary medications of the design. Still graphics such as bullets and photographs will be incorporated into the site, as will other tools, such as, fonts, titles and headings, links, blank space, and horizontal and ruling lines. There will be no need for security beyond that readily available to all sites, because this site's objective is to educate and aid. The life expectancy of this site is 5 or more years. By five years from now, it is anticipated that organizations will have come to realize that not all employees are alike and that they need to be trained to function in a team-based environment."
Abstract Robert Frost addresses many human emotions and themes in his poetry. In this essay the conflict of desire and apprehension is explored. 5 pgs. Bibliography lists 5 sources.
The paper examines how poor speaking and communication skills can impact on an individual's educational achievements and his ability to interact with those around him and also presents proposals for alleviating communication apprehension.
Abstract The writer of the paper contends that speaking in public is probably one of the hardest things in life confronting most people today and that people who experience high levels of communication apprehension have been shown to score lower on college entrance examinations, have lower overall grade point averages and have been found to be at a higher risk for dropping out of college compared with those with low communication apprehension levels. In the paper, the writer attempts to identify the importance of communicating in today's team-based work environment; to identify the importance of communicating in everyday life; to determine the quantity and quality of talk of an apprehensive individual; to determine the perceptions of other group members; and to deliver guidelines for coping with communication apprehension that can be readily applied by most people today. The paper's writer also interpolates a critical review of the literature with the results of a survey of currently employed individuals to help answer the research questions. A summary of the research and salient findings are presented in the concluding chapter. The paper includes a number of graphs and one appendix which is a copy of a questionnaire used in the research.
Outline:
Abstract
Chapter 1: Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of Study
Importance of Study
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature
Chapter 3: Methodology
Description of the Study Approach
Data-gathering Method and Database of Study
Chapter 4: Findings
Chapter 5: Discussion
Chapter 6: Summary and Conclusions
References
Appendix
From the Paper "Individuals who suffer from high levels of communication apprehension have been shown to score lower on college entrance examinations, have lower overall grade point averages and have been found to be at a higher risk for dropping out of college compared with those with low communication apprehension levels (Greene & Burleson). Moreover, people with high levels of communication apprehension have been found to be regarded as being less competent, composed, and attractive compared with more gregarious individuals (Greene & Burleson). In addition, these high communication apprehension level individuals are also less likely to receive job interviews and, when hired, are less likely to seek career advancement. The negative consequences associated with communication apprehension have been found to result in an overall diminished sense of self. The vast majority of research on communication apprehension has been directed toward helping college students manage their anxiety in the context of a basic public speaking course; in addition, communication researchers have documented the impact of instruction on reducing apprehension and improving competence and success. Of all of the treatment approaches investigated to date, the three most popular treatments of communication apprehension involve one or more of the following: skills training, systematic desensitization, and cognitive modification and restructuring, with skills training being the most common technique used (Greene & Burleson)."
Abstract This paper explains that kleptomania is an impulse-control disorder in which the person has irresistible impulses to steal objects that are not needed for personal use or for their monetary value. The author points out that, because kleptomania appears to be associated more with character or personality issues than with simple depression, combination therapy seems to be the best therapeutic approach. The paper relates that the full impact of kleptomania on stores is not understood because apprehension rates for shoplifting are low and store owners turn over only twenty-four percent of the perpetrators they catch. The paper reports that studies indicate that shoplifting is not confined to specific gender, race, age or social class; however, they are disproportionately young and female.
From the Paper "Various disorders such as mood disorders, eating disorders, substance abuse and impulse control disorder can be linked to kleptomania. In the "American Journal of Psychiatry", August 2003, The article 'Psychopathology and Co-morbidity of Psychiatric Disorders in Patients with Kleptomania' discusses a study conducted that compared patients with kleptomania, patients with alcohol abuse or dependence, and psychiatric patients without impulse-control disorders or substance-related disorders on several key psychopathological dimensions."
Abstract This paper discusses the implementation of the Young Offenders Act (YOA), that was enacted in order to attempt to reduce youth crime in Canada. The paper analyzes research that discusses the reasons why youth crime fell each year from 1991 until 1996 and the fact that apprehension and charging rates over time tended to be due to legislative changes rather than actual changes in criminal behavior.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Crime in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s: The Young Offenders Act
Youth Crime in Canada Under the Youth Criminal Justice Act
Comparison with "Other" Crime: Workplace Violence
Conclusion
From the Paper "Overall, the findings indicate that in terms of youth crime in Canada, changes in apprehension and charging rates over time tend to be due to legislative changes rather than actual changes in criminal behavior. Recent results indicate that in the last few years, increases in chargeable youth rates were probably owing to technical reporting factors rather than changed police charging practices. Regarding another form of crime, workplace violence has decreased in Canada over the years in every sector apart from the health care, welfare and community service industries, which experienced marked increases. Reasons behind these changes are probably social and political in nature. Heightened scores in some provinces were found to be probably related to the fact that there are a greater proportion of residents in these areas working in high risk sectors for workplace violence."
Abstract This paper argues that the use of force is most justifiable in a clear situation of direct threat of harm to the police and innocent persons. The paper further argues that this is not the only justification, however, as within police work there are many gray areas. In addition, the paper argues that the adoption of a policy of only allowing the use of force when there is a perceived threat of injury to an innocent is too simplistic a model for the many gray areas that are involved in police work. The paper argues this by first discussing scenarios of apprehension and then by discussing the issue of interrogation and, lastly, by developing, from the literature, a better sense of the existing rules, regulations and laws pertaining to the use of force and their moral ground.
Outline:
Introduction
Grey Areas
Suspect Coercion by Force or Threat of Force
Conclusion
From the Paper "Yet, this is simply one example which can be dissected to a myriad of gray eras that often face officers in the field. For Locke, or Hobbes, there is no question that if one person is seeking to take another's life or liberty than the acts of a civil government are justified, as use of force may need to be used to subdue the infringement. What if the weapon is concealed, by the individual or even simply suspected to be a lethal weapon by the officer, in a moment of assumed danger and fast movement, but is in fact not a weapon at all? What if the individual is reaching for said weapon to relinquish it and the officer perceives that they are doing so to use it? What if the distance from the suspect is so great that the officer cannot confirm that the item in question is a weapon but if it is it is still within lethal striking range of the officer or another innocent bystander?"
Abstract This paper examines the way in which fierce competition in the automotive industry forces competitors to offer innovative and unique products and services if they want to survive. The writer examines the dilemma created for companies that want to take advantage of open competition, yet are apprehensive about the risks involved in such ventures during economic downturns. Suggested strategies for new competitors are also discussed in this paper.
From the Paper "It would be nearly impossible to deny that the automobile has become a necessity in modern society. Few Americans can imagine their lives without the convenience of automotive transportation, and even fewer would want to try. It is our great dependence on this form of transportation that makes the automotive market so competitive. It is the changing marketplace however, that fuels this competition, causing the opportunities available to fluctuate dramatically."
Abstract The paper begins with a definition of public speaking anxiety and a discussion on the various forms it takes. This is followed by an examination of some of the common treatments for this condition. Finally, the impact and importance of preparation and practice in avoiding this anxiety is explained.
From the Paper "Public speaking anxiety is defined as a certain type of communication apprehension or CA, where CA is defined as, "fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with another person or person" (O?Hair, Freidrich, Wiemann & Wiemann 344). Communication apprehension can be either a personality trait, where the individual feels apprehensive about any type of communication. Or more commonly, it is situational, where the level of anxiety depends on factors such as the nature of the communication and the size of the audience. This explains why an individual may be a confident speaker in an informal situation, but may still develop high levels of anxiety in a situation with a large audience or one that is seen as a threat. It is also important to note that it is not only the size of the audience that matters, the other factors in the situation also have an impact. For example, an individual may be comfortable giving a speech to several hundred school mates, but then experience anxiety if asked to speak in front of a formal board of directors, or to a group of children. This illustrates that it is the stress associated with the communication situation that determines the levels of anxiety experienced."
This paper explores the role of madness in three of Edgar Allan Poe's "Tales of Terror": ?The Tell-Tale Heart,? ?The Cask of Amontillado,? and "The Fall of the House of Usher".
1,390 words (approx. 5.6 pages), 5 sources, 2002, $ 46.95
Abstract This paper discusses that, through the words and actions of the unknown narrators in ?The Tell-Tale Heart,? "The Fall of the House of Usher" and the vengeful Montresor in "The Cask of Amontillado", readers can understand Poe's psychological madness. This paper discusses that within these deranged minds is the portrait of this psychosis: An individual perceives he is trapped in a hostile environment beyond his control, which produces great apprehension despite the lack of specific causes for his dread. The paper author believes that Poe's characters or narrators feel remorse for their actions and are moved emotionally to atone for their guilt.
From the Paper "However, in reality, many individuals are frequently at the mercy of some unexplained anxiety brought about by circumstances which are difficult, if not impossible, to deal with in a logical manner. As seen with a quick reading of any of the tales mentioned, the origin of the madness is described graphically, as in the beating of a dead man's heart, the devious yet unexplained treachery of Fortunato and the foreboding atmosphere of the decrepit House of Usher."
Abstract In Meditation One of his "Meditations on First Philosophy", Rene Descartes introduces his "evil Demon" as a device in his logical proof for the coherence of his intellect and thereby the basis of his argument to extend his famous deduction of individual existence - "I think therefore I am" - beyond the boundaries of individual consciousness. However, the "evil Demon" scenario undermines Descartes' argument as the Meditations progress in that it represents a challenge to his argument for the existence of God and thereby for the assertion of the certainty of sensory apprehension in Meditation Six. Thus, it will be argued that although the device of the "evil Demon" functions effectively in the assertion of radical doubt, it also undermines Descartes' argument in the rest of his text.
Abstract This paper explains that the dark presence of tragedy can be strongly sensed because it not only permeates the plot lines, but also the various characters that bring the tale to life. The author points out that Poe's own life was based on a tragic drama because it was influenced by many events that were beyond his control, such as the early death of his wife, Virginia, from tuberculosis in 1847. The paper relates that the characters perceive they are trapped in a hostile environment beyond their control, which creates great apprehension, despite not knowing the specific causes for their dread.
From the Paper "In "The Pit and the Pendulum," the unknown protagonist, upon being given "the sentence, the dread sentence of death" by the Inquisition, is imprisoned in a dark, foreboding dungeon with no apparent exit. His initial fear that he has been buried alive soon dissipates upon discovering he is trapped in a prison. After discerning the size of this dungeon, he accidentally falls and finds himself lying at the brink of a bottomless pit. He then falls asleep and awakens sometime later to discover, while strapped to a framework, that a pendulum of glistening steel is suspended above him, hissing back and forth as it descends within inches of his body. For him, death seems inevitable until the pendulum suddenly ceases its movement and withdraws into the darkness. His situation then becomes more ominous as the walls of "burning iron" close in on him, causing the dungeon to squeeze into a lozenge. As his foothold shrinks to nothing, a hand reaches out and rescues him from his enemies."
Abstract This paper discusses racial profiling, describes what it is, and argues that it hurts our communities. The paper includes statistics and interesting stories about racial profiling and how it has actually hindered the apprehension of criminals.
From the Paper "Racial Profiling detracts police and other officials from real threats or problems and builds certain distrust between our police forces and our different minorities. African-Americans, Latinos, Asians, Native Americans and Arabs- and sometimes even whites can be targeted for this discrimination. Due to the recent terrorist attacks of 9/11 citizens and visitors of Middle Eastern and South Asian decent, or those of the Sikh or Muslim faiths, have become more frequent subjects of racial profiling over the last three years."
The evaluation of three assessment methods, including interviews, bio-data, and psychometric tests, with particular reference to their reliability and validity.
Abstract In recruiting and retaining employees for any organization, it is of foremost importance to select the most qualified to enhance productivity and profit. The selection methods chosen by employers to distinguish between employees therefore need to be both valid and reliable. This essay critically evaluates three assessment methods, interviews, psychometric tests, and bio-data, with regards to their validity and reliability, highlighting common operating biases, such as impression management, social desirability, and evaluation apprehension on the part of the applicant, as well as stereotyping on the part of the employer. The three methods chosen are extensively employed by organizations to discern the best applicant; understanding their relative weaknesses and strengths should be of foremost importance for employers.
From the Paper "Personality assessments, alternatively, allow the employer insight into the applicant, enabling the competencies established during job analysis to be directly matched. Personality tests usually relate to trait models of personality. Trait theories assert that behaviour is consistent and determined by individual characteristics as opposed to situational factors. Costa and McCrae (1976, cited in Cooper, 2002) established five separate 'traits'; extraversion; neuroticism; openess to experience; agreeableness; and conscientiousness; and argued that personality comprises of differing poles of each trait. The model is widely accepted, representing seventy-five years of factor analytic research on observers' ratings of personality (Goldberg, 1993, cited in English and Griffith, 2004)."
