Abstract The paper defines the word consciousness and questions whether chimpanzees and other apes do indeed possess all three traits that make up consciousness as we know it: language, self-awareness, and theory of mind. The paper gives examples from animal communication research which show that they perhaps do possess these traits. It then looks at the critics of this theory who claim that the difference between the human and ape consciousness is vast and that apes cannot really claim to possess language, self-awareness and a theory of mind skills.
From the Paper "One of the original researchers using sign language with apes, Herb Terrace is now a critic. Terrace placed a chimpanzee named Nim in a community of people using sign language to see if he would pick up the language, but found that only by bribing him with treats did he learn (Wynne 52). Terrace realized that Nim was simply using signs that his trainers had used in their question, so in effect he was just echoing what had been said (Wynne 52). Regarding Washoe's description of a swan as ?waterbird,? it is noted that perhaps she was simply naming two things she saw, water and bird. As far as Kanzi's ability to pick up symbolic language from observation of her mother's training, it must be noted that Kanzi was rewarded for her use of symbols and usually given the things that she named (Wynne 52)."
A discussion of the sign and symbol-based language experiments conducted with great apes over the last forty years, including criticisms, findings, and implications. Addresses projects with gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, and bonobos.
6,395 words (approx. 25.6 pages), 15 sources, 2002, $ 148.95
Abstract This paper addresses a number of different language experiments that have been performed with all four species of great apes - gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, and bonobos, and the advantages, disadvantages, and relative success of each, including conducted experiments. The author discusses the physical limitations of the apes, the advantages of using sign language as opposed to keyboard and symbol-based language, and criticisms brought up by various skeptics. The paper also mentions other types of cognitive activities in which the apes have participated, including painting and learning a system of economic exchange.
From the paper:
"The Koko Project is currently the longest running and most successful of all the ape language projects. Patterson's goal was for Koko [the gorilla] to learn 200 signs ? she now knows over a thousand, and understands at least 2,000 words of spoken English. She asks questions, she lies, she tells stories, she uses the negative, she uses and understands abstract words like love, hate, and death, and she even tells jokes. One of the most famous incidents involves a conversation between Koko and one of her teachers regarding the color of her blanket. As she was getting ready to go to bed, the teacher asked Koko what color the blanket was. Koko responded "red," even though the blanket was white. The teacher admonished her and asked her again, refusing to believe that Koko would make such a simple mistake. Still, Koko responded "red," and repeated it several times. The teacher was perplexed. Then Koko pulled a tiny piece of red lint off the blanket, pointed to it, and signed "red," and started laughing her deep, breathy, gorilla laugh. Humor, then, is another quality we humans can no longer claim for ourselves alone."
Abstract The paper provides an extensive literature review on the topic of communication among apes and discusses how it seems clear that apes can acquire some form of language and communicate with humans. The paper reveals that there is also evidence that apes may have a form of language of their own by which they communicate with each other. The paper discovers that apes would not normally acquire such capabilities on their own, but they can be trained to use language and respond to its meaning.
Outline:
Introduction
Review of Literature
Conclusion
From the Paper "Research has been conducted for a long time on questions about the origin of language and how human beings first learned to speak. More recently, research has shifted to various primate studies as to whether or not other primates have what can be considered a language and in some cases whether apes can be taught to understand language and even to speak. Some of the early experiments in this area were seen as promising by some and as self-delusion by others, but the research continued and has produced a number of interesting results that may bring us closer to understanding the genesis of language and how widespread language is in the animal kingdom."
Abstract The paper looks at a few studies conducted on apes and their ability to acquire language. The writer addresses the hypothesis that if researchers can learn how apes acquire language skills and how they process input from humans, it should be possible to communicate with them in a meaningful way. The paper presents a method of study, introducing the hypothesis and the test for reaching a conclusion.
From the Paper "The design of the study would involve a comparison of the methods by which children and apes acquire language skills. The apes and humans tested would have to be raised from birth by the same caregivers and given the same exposure to language, either acquired by listening to it or acquired in specific teaching sessions. Learning of words and their association with objects would be studied first, then sentence recognition would be studied. Controls would be used to ensure that words and sentences were really recognized, and not just remembered by rote or by cues given unknowingly by the caregiver. These would involve presenting words or sentences in different orders, and varying the order of words in sentences."
Abstract This paper discusses the premise of Stanford's book, "The Hunting Apes", which contends that early human social formations were predicated on the acquisition and sharing of meat. The paper explains how Stanford, after exploring the role of female and male apes as hunters and consumers of meat, arrived at the conclusion that the acquisition and sharing of meat contributed to a "might-makes-right" form of patriarchy.
From the Paper "Over the course of the last 100 years, consensus has varied greatly with respect to the emergence of mankind in Africa; especially with respect to temperament. These theories have met with everything from hearty praise to scornful denunciation; the book jacket to ?African Genesis,? published in the 1950?s, includes the opinion of the New York Times: ?The theories are wildly wrong.? One of the most controversial subjects has been man's diet, and how that has had a bearing on the evolution of mankind. This is the subject of Craig Stanford's ?The Hunting Apes,? which portrays early human social formations as being predicated on the acquisition and sharing of meat."
Abstract This paper is in two parts. The first part reviews and summarizes past work in ape language research, including the Gardners' work with the chimp Washoe, Francine Patterson's work with Koko the gorilla, Lyn Miles's work with Chantek the orangutan and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh's work with bonobos and chimps. The second part is a proposal for an experiment to teach American Sign Language to a group of bonobos and then use these communicative abilities to test their memory and planning abilities. It includes descriptions of bonobo behavior in the wild and captivity, an argument for gestural language as the first human language and a description of the means of teaching and testing the bonobos in the proposed experiment. The paper includes a table and illustrations.
From the Paper "During the Oligocene epoch of the Tertiary period, a small monkey-like creature lived in the rainforest trees in central Africa. About thirty million years ago, this primate ancestor diverged into two distinct species; one would father the line of Old World monkeys, including baboons and macaques. The other would become the predecessor of modern apes and humans. Around twenty-two million years ago gibbons split away from that line and formed a branch known as the lesser apes. Six or seven million years later, orangutans too diverged from the ape lineage and migrated to the Asian islands of Sumatra and Borneo, where they remained highly arboreal. Another eight or nine million years passed, during which this ape line began to spend more time on the ground, and gorillas split off to become their own species. Two million years more went by, bringing us to the Pliocene epoch, which began about five million years ago. It was at this crucial point in evolutionary history that our ancestors and the ancestors of modern chimpanzees and bonobos took different paths, the former leading to bipedality, ground-based life, and hominization, the latter eventually splitting into two more distinct species about three million years ago, both of whom would remain remarkably similar to us physically, behaviorally, emotionally, and intellectually (Goodall, Hook, Leakey, Linden 1992)."
Compares the "Man the Hunter" theory of human evolution with the theory in the book, "The Hunting Apes: Meat Eating and the Origins of Human Behavior".
Abstract This paper briefly explains the "Man the Hunter" theory of human evolution and then offers a longer, more detailed explanation of the theory on human behavior put forward in Craig Stanford's book, "The Hunting Apes: Meat Eating and the Origins of Human Behavior". The paper also compares and contrasts the two theories and cites some of the criticisms of Stanford's theory.
From the Paper "How behavior has evolved from our hominid ancestors to the present day has been a constant concern among anthropologists. Charles Darwin's paradigm of human evolution lacks direct evidence in fossil record to provide the basis for the reconstruction (Stanford 1999), which leads anthropological researchers to rely much on their imagination to do the job. In the process, biases result and lead to heated debates and further guesses, the most controversial topic of argument being the origin of hominid sex roles and differences ? if early hominid male had a different behavioral adaptation from the female and if one dominated the other."
Abstract This paper explores the third chapter of Desmond Morris', "The Naked Ape," as it relates to the development of human children. It discusses the content of the chapter under discussion and describes Morris' view on imprinting. The paper compares Morris' view with that of L. Salk and his strong case for imprinting. It concludes that these individuals are very similar, but their methods differ.
From the Paper "In the end, Desmond Morris relies heavily upon the work of Salk in the third chapter of his book. Instinctively, I am inclined to think that Morris is correct in dismissing left-handed cradling; I am also inclined to think that the matter is more complicated than he acknowledges - especially given the findings of later research. Fundamentally, I prefer Salk's findings to Morris' simple regurgitation of them; by engaging in original research, Salk gives his conclusions an authenticity that Morris does not. Furthermore, Morris' refusal to cite studies supporting the arguments of critics insisting that left-handed cradling is caused by "right-handedness" in society leaves the reader with the impression that he erected a "straw-man" so that his own argument would be strengthened."
Abstract This paper debates whether humans are the only species to have advanced communication capabilities and whether it possible that animals can also have complex thoughts and have the ability to express their thoughts and emotions among their own species and possibly even with a different species. It looks at research done over the years on this topic from ape language experiments and dolphin communication to the relationship between man and his pet.
From the Paper "Koko, a 350 pound low-land gorilla, is probably the most famous subject of any known ape language experiment. Koko was the subject of Penny Patterson, and it was Eugene Linden who spent almost two years with Patterson observing her and Koko interacting together. "Watching Koko use ASL was entirely different from watching a chimpanzee engaged in the same process"Koko seemed more controlled and leisurely, more comfortable with the act of signing?, this is how Linden explained his first encounter with Koko (Linden 116). Koko was a five year old ape, which is relatively young as in humans, during the time of Linden's observations."
Abstract This paper explores the way in which the term 'consciousness' has been used by philosophers and scientists alike, throughout the ages. It ranges from definitions of Descartes in the 17th century and John Locke. It then moves to the scientific approach and focuses on an experiment with apes in which the consciousness of animals was compared with that of humans.
From the Paper "At Cornell University, Edward Bradford Titchener, an American psychologist, developed the introspective approach. Introspective self-reports helped to detail his structure of the mind from which he developed a structuralism approach to consciousness. For example, Ataste was >dimensionalized= into four basic categories: sweet, sour, salt and bitter (p.2). By the 1920's consciousness was removed from psychological research for 50 years when behaviorism captured the field of psychology. By the late 1950's the subject of consciousness returned. ATechniques relating to altered states of consciousness, sleep and dreams, meditation, biofeedback, hypnosis and drug-induced states surfaced (p.2)."
An analysis of the play, "The Hairy Ape" by Eugene O?Neill, which is about the life of a coal shoveller on a pleasure ship, examining the use of animal symbolism within it.
Abstract This paper focuses on the use of animal symbols in the play and its message about society. It explains how the playwright uses animal symbolism liberally throughout the play to create a picture of the character of Yank, a brutish man who, it is implied, might be more at home in a cage. It explains, however, that he is a human being in spite of his animal nature, and the symbolism of the play is used to illuminate the character and to imply certain things about the human race, which often treats its own members more like animals than like human beings.
From the Paper "The Old Salt Paddy is a living symbol of the past, and early in the play he mourns for a time about when sailors were free men. He offers a vision of a sailing ship, a symbol of man's freedom through a unity with nature in its exalted form. In the past, he says, "A ship was part of the sea, and a man was part of a ship and the sea joined altogether and made it one" (259). Paddy thus talks of a past where men worked hard but were a part of sea and sky, a partner with weather, with nature. Clearly, this is not at all like the dark and cramped work of Yank and the others, undertaken beneath the deck where they almost never see the sea at all and are separated entirely from nature."
Abstract Audience reaction to the first of a series of five films, derived from Pierre Boulle's novel, "La Planete des Singes", was a solid indicator of a new kind of consciousness. The paper shows that, despite the repulsiveness of the mere possibility of man's reversing roles with apes, movie and television audiences accepted that suggestion or entertainment. It terrified, repelled, but stretched their imagination as to what the future could be. The threat of nuclear destruction, the implications of the assassination of former President John F. Kennedy, and the consequences of the Vietnam War were the torrents and setting when Boulle wrote his novel. By the time the first film was produced and shown in 1968, there were other threats to human security. This paper looks at each of the five films and discusses them in relation to human intelligence and consciousness.
From the Paper "Apes, therefore, thrive on nature as their sole guide. On the other hand, man is equipped with the responsibility, duty as well as privilege to use his intelligence, judgment and will to choose his good or evil, survival or destruction. Apes are on the safe side, which is far from error and destruction, but their capacity for happiness and the determination of that level of happiness are both limited. In man, it is virtually without limits, because he has what is called a soul."
Abstract This paper discusses the skeletal changes reflected in the change from arboreal to terrestrial locomotion. The author examines the evolution of primates through lemuroides, tarsiers, monkeys, apes to humans. The paper defines the structure that differentiates humans.
From the Paper "Primates have evolved over a period of millions of years and the ultimate in evolution is the human. Over the course of time, different primates evolved different body structures, which suited their time and their lifestyle and the ecosystem into which they fit. The prosimians and the early primates were arboreal, which over time gradually descended from the trees and developed an upright stance. This was accompanied by skeletal changes to accommodate the postural changes. Primates are distinguished from other mammals by nine general features: A generalized limb ..."
Abstract The paper posits that Eugene O'Neill's play, "Beyond the Horizon", is a naturalist expression, while his play, "The Hairy Ape", is much more expressionistic, though each has elements of the other. The paper examines both works in order to demonstrate O'Neill's use of both naturalism and expressionism.
From the Paper "Naturalism is considered an artistic movement that seeks to represent an ordinary, every day reality to convey an artistic or universal thematic message. In theater, this refered to the illusion of reality as represented through detailled sets fuelled by the grandiose imagery of the dialogue itself and the unpoetic effusive literary style which also gives rise to expressionism. In this sense, reality gives way to heightened reality and this represents the transitionary phase and the distinction between naturalism and expressionisim, a distinction best revealed through specific study of the literary works of O'Neill that contain elements of both. Whereas naturalism is a faithful and detailled representation of reality, expressionism becomes the overstated and heightened state of reality that would evoke the most poweful human response."
Abstract This paper discusses Bigfoot-the legendary, giant ape-like creature. The stories and evidence in this paper are provided by coach David Wright, a zoology and biology teacher by trade and a legitimate Bigfoot researcher who is affiliated with the Bigfoot Field Research Organization. The paper describes the creature and tells us its place of abode and that it has been in existence since the mid 19th century. In addition, the paper describes a few encounters with Bigfoot as well as video evidence.
From the Paper "Many footprints are found each year by Bigfoot researchers. When Sasquatch footprints are found, scientist use a method called casting to preserve and better their research. Casting is the process of manufacturing in which a liquid substance is poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then the liquid is allowed to solidify. The solid casting is then broken out to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. Casting is a six thousand year old process. The oldest surviving casting is a copper frog from Thirty two hundred BC. There have been many casts made from Sasquatch (Wright, David). Scientists have made casts of many body parts including feet, hands, knuckles, buttocks, and even whole body imprints. Footprint cast have been popping up individually for decades and covering miles (Murphy 141). A series of nine Sasquatch footprints were casted after the Patterson - Gimlin film. Some casts from this series showed a lack of arch in the middle of the foot, indicating an opposite flexibility in that part of the foot. Also there were several half-tracks casted, meaning the Bigfoot had been running because it's heel never touched the ground (131). There have also been hand, knuckle, and buttock imprints that comply with Sasquatch tracks or sightings. In the year two thousand Richard Noll, Matt Moneymaker, and several other investigators went on a Bigfoot expedition. While on their hunt they discovered a half body imprint of Sasquatch close to Skookum Meadow in the Gifford Pinchot National Forest in Washington (Coleman 17). "If authentic, noted Benjamin Radford, editor of the Skeptic Inquirer, the cast would be 'arguably the most significant find in the past two decades'" (17). They arranged a mud trap, set out some food, and played sound recordings of what was said to be a Sasquatch call. They received responses to their call. Animals took their food and tracks of coyotes, bears, deer, and elk showed up in their mud trap. Then they found a large imprint which was later decided to be a Sasquatch imprint (21)."
Tags: legend, creature, encounters, Bigfoot, footprints, giant, ape
