Abstract
Fetal antigens are what is referred to as "allogeneic" to the mother's immune system and should theoretically elicit an immune response. The fact that this does not occur and that the fetus thrives for so long in the mother without undergoing rejection by her immune system is a scientific mystery. There are five main theories that could explain the fetus's success in escaping the effects of the mother's immune system. These are the mother's overall immune suppressed state, maternal tolerance to fetal antigens, down-regulation of fetal antigens, the presence of a barrier between maternal immunity and the fetus, and local immune suppression in the placental region

From the Paper
Examining the Origins of the Fetal Relationship: Why Does the Mother's Body Tolerate the Fetus? Joe Student Professor's Name March 19, 2009 Fetal antigens are what is referred to as "allogeneic" to the mother's immune system and should theoretically elicit an immune response. The fact that this does not occur and that the fetus thrives for so long in the mother without undergoing rejection by her immune system is a scientific mystery. There are five main theories that could explain the fetus's

Tags:fetus, pregnancy, immunology

Abstract
This paper discusses how antibodies and antigen serve to coat a foreign cell preventing the foreign cell from binding to other cells in the body. Binding of the antibodies and antigen to a toxin molecule prevents the foreign cell from accomplishing any of the tasks that it is intended to achieve. The paper further discusses how, never the less, this process is dependent on an effector mechanism in the complement system which has specific purposes. The compliment system serves as the overall protector while the antibodies and antigen direct the response of the compliment system which in turn destroys the foreign cells.

From the Paper
"The integrity of the plasma membrane is essential for cellular survival. Could the immune system utilize this fact to destroy foreign cells that have invaded the body? How might cells of the immune system disrupt membranes of foreign cells? (Two hints: virtually all cells can secrete proteins, and some proteins form pores in membranes.) Antibodies and antigen serve to coat a foreign cell, preventing the foreign cell from binding to other cells in the body. Binding of the antibodies and antigen to a toxin molecule prevents the foreign cell from accomplishing any of the tasks that it is intended to achieve. Yet, this process is dependent on an effector mechanism in the complement system, which has specific purposes. The compliment system serves as the overall protector, while the antibodies and antigen direct the response of the compliment system, which in turn destroys the foreign cells."

Tags:cell, biology, lakes

Abstract
This report explains in detail the function, structure and assembly of flagella in E.coli and Salmonella, using plain language and a number of diagrams. Movement (chemotaxis) is the primary function of flagella but its design also incorporates efficient repair capability and antigenic variation. In Salmonella and E.coli the flagellar filament is a homopolymer of flagellin monomers, although other species (such as Helicobacter) build their flagella from mixtures of two types of subunit. All the properties of the functioning filament are reflected in the structure of the flagellin monomer, which has conserved and variable regions, regions targeted by chaperones and coiling enzymes and regions evolved specifically for interaction between monomers. Chemotaxis is driven by a proton motive force (as in oxidative phosphorylation) and the basal complex that converts this energy into rapid rotation of the flagellum is highly complex.

From the Paper
"Many bacteria are motile and exhibit chemotaxis migration through the extracellular medium towards attractants (e.g. carbon sources), and away from repellents (e.g. antibiotics). The majority move using flagella protein structures variable in number and position (Box 1) that generate thrust by rotating like propellers. Flagella are 15nm in diameter and can be observed under light microscopy after thick metal staining or using advanced microscopy techniques such as electron microscopy. Because of the competitive advantages of chemotaxis, there has been strong selection for efficient chemotactic apparatus and flagellar efficiency. The flagellum is based in the bacterial surface layers where a complex array of proteins forms the flagellar motor. Resembling the electric rotary motor and the membrane-bound F1F0-ATPase, and powered by a proton influx across the inner membrane, this highly efficient machine is merely 30nm in diameter. Its mechanism is the subject of ongoing research."

Tags:antigenic, apparatus, bacteria, bacterial, chaperones, chemotaxis, coli, cytoplasmic, escherichia, export, flagellin, flagellum, motile, motility, salmonella, variation

Abstract
The paper addresses efforts in developing multi antigenic cancer vaccines and the progress in cell transfer therapy that includes adoptive T cell therapy and chemokine therapy. The paper also looks at the Tregs suppression that complements the effects of the different types of cell transfer therapies. The paper asserts that though we are still a long way from understanding all the intricate cellular mechanisms that underlie cancer, we are definitely witnessing a paradigm shift in immunotherapeutic treatment modalities and are fast progressing on our way to find a cure to this dreaded disease.

Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Immunotherapy for Cancer
Cell Transfer Therapy
Chemokine Therapy
Cancer Vaccines
Peptide Vaccines
Dendritic Cell Vaccines
TREGS (A new outlook at Immunotherapy)
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Recent developments in biotechnology and the increasing understanding of molecular biology have made possible to test and develop new immune pathways to the destruction of cancer cells. Two major classes of T lymphocytes (CD4 and CD8) have been known for their anti cancer properties. Studies have also revealed that the CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes identify more than 3 dozen antigens. [Steven Rosenberg] Studies have shown that tumor specific antigens are able to trigger the body's innate anti-inflammatory responses and hence invoke natural immune reaction. One recent study has confirmed the direct link between immune system and cancer. For this clinical study, a total of 905 patients who had undergone various organ transplantation surgeries were recruited. Since these patients were under immunosuppressive therapy (to prevent organ rejection), they were the ideal candidates for the research on immunosuppression and cancer. 102 of these subjects developed various forms of cancer that represents a very high ratio of 7.1 times that of the general population. The results of this study clearly support the immune surveillance theory that claims that the immune system actively detects and eliminates tumor cells. [Olivera J Finn]
"Three important criteria are necessary for the success of immune therapy against cancer. First is the presence of large number of 'tumor reactive lymphocytes' in the host, secondly these tumor reactive lymphocytes should be able to reach and be active at the tumor sites and finally they must possess effector mechanisms to destroy the tumor cells. Two important approaches in immunotherapy for cancer include the development of cancer vaccines and the cell transfer therapy."

Tags:adoptive, T, cell, therapy, chemokine, therapy, Tregs, suppression

Abstract
This paper examines the controversial issue of screening for prostate cancer using the PSA test. It explains that PSA is used for its predictive value of prostate cancer in men and a value higher than 4.0 is positive and indicates the possibility of cancer; it is negative if less than 4.0. The paper discusses the serious issues related to the lack of physician adherence to guidelines in Canada and the out-of-pocket payment required of men in Ontario who wish to have the PSA test. The paper also points out that the central issue related to PSA screening is informed decision making as it concerns the patient and the clinician.

From the Paper
"Prostate cancer is prevalent in Canada which, in 2006, had about 10,700 new cases and 4,200 deaths from the disease (Beaulac, Fry & Onysko, 2006). The incidence rates for prostate cancer are low in Ontario, Quebec, and three of the western provinces. Incidence rates in Ontario are far below the national average. The low rates in Ontario appear to result from the use of PSA screening and other forms of early detection. A reduced incidence rate since 1993 across Canada seems to indicate that detection is now being undertaken in a consistent manner all over the country (Gaudette & Altmayer, 1998)."

Tags:cancer, men, tests, biomarker, mortality, Ontario, Quebec

From the Paper
" HIV Testing
The causative agent in the present acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) pandemic is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV exists in various forms, including HIV.1 and HIV.2. A number of laboratory tests are currently available for their detection.
HIV is a complex retrovirus of the lentivirus subgroup. It contains two copies of single.stranded viral RNA (1:305). The HIV genome contains structural genes that encode the proteins of the whole virus particle as well as replicative enzymes. The retrovirus also contains at least eight additional regulatory and accessory genes that regulate its life cycle (1:306).

Within about 4 to 6 weeks of initial HIV infection there is a period of viremia without detectable antibodies (1:306)..."

Abstract
This paper briefly summarizes and then reviews an article on a potential cancer therapy entitled "Exploiting T cell Receptor Genes for Cancer Immunotherapy." The paper explains that the article reviewed discussed various cancer treatment options with T cell receptor immunotherapy and then goes on to discuss the results and conclusions found in the article. The paper concludes that the article was well-written and informative.

From the Paper
"Adoptive antigen-specific immunotherapy is a potential cancer therapy because immunocompetence is not required and lymphocyte specificity can be targeted against tumour-associated antigens. T cell receptor (TCR) genes isolated from antigen-specific T cells may be therapeutically used for antigen-specific immunotherapy. TCR gene therapy may provide an appealing strategy to develop antigen-specific immunotherapy. Examples of this type of therapy include retroviral TCR gene transfer, TCR gene modified lymphocytes, and TCR gene expression."

Tags:monoclonal, generic, reagents, surface, helper, functions, cytotoxicity, cytokine, production

Abstract
This paper describes what antigens are, the different classes of blood groups and the problems that arise when blood of different types are mixed together. It also explains the dangers associated with blood transfusions and how they can be overcome.

Outline
Introduction: Blood Transfusion
Antigens and Antibodies
Blood Groups and Transfusion Reactions
Overcoming Difficulties in Transfusions
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The transfusion of blood is a medically important and life saving procedure. It is important in, for example, surgery involving major blood loss, various types of anaemia, and haemophilia. Usually only some components of blood are used in specific cases, such as plasma when there is a large loss of fluid, or blood clotting factors for haemophilia."

Tags:antibody, antigen, erythrocyte, lymphocyte, phagocyte, rbc, rhesus

Abstract
This paper examines how affinity maturation is a response to an antibody that occurs in vivo and how it can be defined as the gradual increase of antibody affinity for the immunizing antigen with time. It looks at how it is associated with an enhanced secondary (anamnestic) response, somatic hypermutation, isotype switching and memory development.

From the Paper
"Somatic hypermutation leads to mutations in the rearranged V-D-J sequences of antibodies. The antibodies generated during the primary response use the germline V regions, but in secondary responses all the generated antibodies contain a higher number of V-D-J region mutations. Random changes are introduced into the heavy and light chain genes and may lead to an increase in affinity of the antibody to the antigen. These higher affinity antibodies are then selected to enter the memory cell pool. The somatic mutations occur within the germinal centre in close proximity to the FDC network. If the variants have a high affinity for the antigen they are selected to become either plasma cells or memory B cells [4]."

Tags:antigen, cell, isotype, somatic, hypermutation

Abstract
This paper explains that the immune system generates numerous unusual kinds of immune reactions. For example, the body annihilates eukaryotic cells having or bearing foreign cell-surface antigens. These include cancer cells, whose cell-surface antigens are distorted when a normal cell is genetically changed into a cancer cell. The antigen-bearing cell may be eaten by macrophages or killed by killer cells, which are specialized to destroy abnormal body cells. The paper examines how the immune system functions, looking at physiological processes such as cellular immunity and humoral immunity.

From the Paper
"Humoral immunity is best explained as if the virus has not yet invaded a body cell, it may be surfaced by antibody molecules that may have been secreted into the body fluids by B cells. The virus-antibody is then eaten and destroyed by a phagocyte."

Tags:cellular, humoral, allergy