Abstract
This paper first relates the history of antibodies from the time of Behring and Kitasato, in 1890, who demonstrated that it is possible to neutralize a fatal dose of the diphtheria toxin, to Milstein and Kohler, in 1975, who produced in-vitro "custom-built" antibodies. The paper then differentiates between polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies and explores the production of monoclonals. The paper concludes by investigating the use of monoclonal antibodies as immnosuppresents, angiogenesis inhibitors and anti-tumor agents and future developments. Two colored illustrations are included in the paper.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
History of Antibodies
Types of Antibody, Their Structure and Effects
Difference between Polyclonal and Monoclonal Antibodies
Production of Monoclonals
Hybridoma
Uses of Monoclonal Antibodies
Immunosuppressive Agents
Angiogenesis Inhibitors
Anti-Tumor Agents
Top 10 Monoclonal Drugs
Future Uses of Monoclonal Antibodies
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Another new technology, which will be used in the future, is antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) technology. ADCs are monoclonal antibodies, which carries potent, cell-killing drugs. Developed by Seattle Genetics, this technology uses antibodies attached to synthetic drugs by linker systems. These linker systems are designed in such a way that they remain stable while passing through the bloodstream, and once inside the target cells, release the required drug. As a result, nearby normal cells are spared and it thus, does not cause any unwanted toxic effects of chemotherapy."

Tags:glycoproteins, immune system, classes, hybrid hybridoma, antibody-drug conjugate

Abstract
This paper explains that antibodies are very important in the human immune system. The author points out that the potential of antibodies for detection and treatment can be realized because of the unique structure of antibodies. The paper describes in detail the methods of obtaining mouse antibodies.

From the Paper
"Antibodies are very important in the human immune system. According to the article Monoclonal Antibodies, Antibodies are a mixture of closely related immune system proteins, with subtle but important differences. They are produced in the blood to recognize and bind to foreign invaders, slinging them out for elimination by the body's immune defenses (Anonymous 1). This means that antibodies can be a very powerful tool for the detection and treatment of disease. The potential of antibodies for the detection and treatment can be realized because of the unique structure of antibodies."

Tags:mouse, antibody, treatments

Abstract
This paper examines how the presence of antinuclear antibodies (ANA) is a helpful marker for diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus, chronic liver disease, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease and many others. In particular, it focuses on the alternatives to immunofluoresence for anti-nuclear antibody testing.

From the Paper
"A scientist called Hargraves (1948) was the first to notice the anti nuclear antibodies in patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Antinuclear antibodies (ANA) are antibodies produced by the host immune system that attack the body's own tissues and organs instead of foreign invading organisms and toxins. Their production may be a result of an underlying autoimmune disease. About 5% of the population have a positive anti nuclear antibody. This percentage is higher in older ages, reaching a 15% in people ages 70 to 80 years old."

Tags:counter, immunoblotting, immunoelectrophoresis, immunofluoresence, nuclear, radioimmunoassay

From the Paper
"Catalytic antibodies are derived from chemically stable hapten which mimic reactions' transitional states. Through their binding energy, the antibodies are able to increase both the specificity and rate of the reactions. These techniques were initially applied to chemical processes which did not require catalysts. Various investigators, for example, have used catalytic antibodies to facilitate the Claisen rearrangement. More recent research, however, has focused on disfavored reactions (i.e., ring closure transformations). One day these methods may find widespread application in various fields of scientific endeavor. "

Abstract
This paper describes an experiment performed in order to determine the minimum concentration of rabbit anti-ferritin antibody by using the Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay. The calculations and results are presented in a table and are accompanied by figures for clarity. The methodology and possibility of error is discussed. Finally, the paper considers the medical and economic implications of these findings.

Outline:
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion

From the Paper
"During this lab, an important biochemical technique was used. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) can be described as one of the most important methods based on the interactions between antibody and antigen (Pye, 2010). An antigen is capable of causing an immune response and react with the products of this response. A molecule that is antigenic may possess several epitopes. Epitopes are antigenic determinants that can bind with an antibody. An antibody recognizes antigens and prevents the antigens from causing damage. The ELISA involves the binding of antibodies to antigen. A primary antibody recognizes the antigen, and a secondary antibody binds to the primary antibody (Chapel et al, 1999). This secondary antibody has an enzyme covalently linked and can interact with a chromogenic or fluorogenic substrate (Pye, 2010).
"A brief history of the need for and discovery of ELISA should be given. The precursor to the ELISA was the radioimmunoassay. This process involved radioactively tagging either the antigens or antibodies under observation. The radiation served as the indicator instead of colorimetric enzyme-substrate reactions (Yalow and Berson, 1960). In 1971, Peter Perlmann, Eva Engvall, Anton Schuurs, and Bauke van Weemen formulated the means to accomplish ELISA."

Tags:antigens, epitopes, biochemistry, cancer

Abstract
This paper discusses how antibodies and antigen serve to coat a foreign cell preventing the foreign cell from binding to other cells in the body. Binding of the antibodies and antigen to a toxin molecule prevents the foreign cell from accomplishing any of the tasks that it is intended to achieve. The paper further discusses how, never the less, this process is dependent on an effector mechanism in the complement system which has specific purposes. The compliment system serves as the overall protector while the antibodies and antigen direct the response of the compliment system which in turn destroys the foreign cells.

From the Paper
"The integrity of the plasma membrane is essential for cellular survival. Could the immune system utilize this fact to destroy foreign cells that have invaded the body? How might cells of the immune system disrupt membranes of foreign cells? (Two hints: virtually all cells can secrete proteins, and some proteins form pores in membranes.) Antibodies and antigen serve to coat a foreign cell, preventing the foreign cell from binding to other cells in the body. Binding of the antibodies and antigen to a toxin molecule prevents the foreign cell from accomplishing any of the tasks that it is intended to achieve. Yet, this process is dependent on an effector mechanism in the complement system, which has specific purposes. The compliment system serves as the overall protector, while the antibodies and antigen direct the response of the compliment system, which in turn destroys the foreign cells."

Tags:cell, biology, lakes

Abstract
This paper examines how affinity maturation is a response to an antibody that occurs in vivo and how it can be defined as the gradual increase of antibody affinity for the immunizing antigen with time. It looks at how it is associated with an enhanced secondary (anamnestic) response, somatic hypermutation, isotype switching and memory development.

From the Paper
"Somatic hypermutation leads to mutations in the rearranged V-D-J sequences of antibodies. The antibodies generated during the primary response use the germline V regions, but in secondary responses all the generated antibodies contain a higher number of V-D-J region mutations. Random changes are introduced into the heavy and light chain genes and may lead to an increase in affinity of the antibody to the antigen. These higher affinity antibodies are then selected to enter the memory cell pool. The somatic mutations occur within the germinal centre in close proximity to the FDC network. If the variants have a high affinity for the antigen they are selected to become either plasma cells or memory B cells [4]."

Tags:antigen, cell, isotype, somatic, hypermutation

Abstract
In this article, the writer looks at systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) that is also simply called lupus. The writer explains that this is an inflammatory connective tissue disease which is manifested in variable signs and symptoms. The writer notes that this condition may affect multiple organ systems with immune complexes and a large array of auto antibodies, particularly antinuclear antibodies. Further, the writer points out that there are also genetic factors that play a role in the development and expression of SLE and environmental factors may also trigger the disease in genetically susceptible hosts.

From the Paper
"The cause of SLE is still unknown. This is an immunologic disorder with the production of auto antibodies. There are different triggering factors of this disease which includes sunlight exposure. Specific medications could also trigger SLE. They initiate immune response in individuals who are susceptible to develop SLE. The two most common of these are Hydralazine and Procainamide. Some anticonvulsants, antiemetics, antituberculars and antibiotics could be among those that trigger this disease."
"The pathophysiology of this disease is not completely known. Studies show that the production of abnormal antibodies by B cells remains the hallmark sign of lupus erythematosus. Such auto antibodies like anti double-stranded DNA and anti-Smith, are very specific for systemic lupus erythematosus. Anti-RNP, anti-Rho and anti-La, are also present in other autoimmune diseases. Whether the B cells themselves are intrinsically abnormal is a subject of current research. One of the underlying deficiencies in SLE may be emphasized on apoptosis, or programmed cell death; cellular antigens exposed during apoptosis incite an immune response."

Tags:antibodies, treatment, blood, patients

Abstract
This paper explains that, even if the HIV infection is currently dormant, the immune system produces antibodies to combat the virus which are ineffective, but their presence indicates an HIV infection. The author points out that the consensus among the medical community about the transmission of AIDS states that there is no evidence that the disease can be transmitted through such activities as casual contact, hugging, kissing or through the air or saliva: AIDS can be transmitted only through direct sexual contact, blood transfusions, hypodermic needles and from mothers to their unborn babies. The paper stresses that the central controversy in the surveillance of AIDS is not the reporting requirement, but how these records might be used.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
"The Plague"
Public Health
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Instead of maintaining the present practice of voluntary testing and confidentiality, many states are considering contact tracing. Contact tracing is a form of medical surveillance in which public health officials are statutorily required to inform the sexual partners of a positive test for a disease by a patient. This process of disease control is authorized in many states for the treatment of venereal disease. A doctor reports a positive test result of a patient to the state health department; the name is entered on a register; and the state health officer then has the duty to inquire about the patient's sexual activities and to inform all sexual partners of the disease; the sexual partners then submit to their own tests."

Tags:antibody, surveillance, sexual, partner, contact

Abstract
This paper describes what antigens are, the different classes of blood groups and the problems that arise when blood of different types are mixed together. It also explains the dangers associated with blood transfusions and how they can be overcome.

Outline
Introduction: Blood Transfusion
Antigens and Antibodies
Blood Groups and Transfusion Reactions
Overcoming Difficulties in Transfusions
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The transfusion of blood is a medically important and life saving procedure. It is important in, for example, surgery involving major blood loss, various types of anaemia, and haemophilia. Usually only some components of blood are used in specific cases, such as plasma when there is a large loss of fluid, or blood clotting factors for haemophilia."

Tags:antibody, antigen, erythrocyte, lymphocyte, phagocyte, rbc, rhesus