Abstract This paper explains that antibodies are very important in the human immune system. The author points out that the potential of antibodies for detection and treatment can be realized because of the unique structure of antibodies. The paper describes in detail the methods of obtaining mouse antibodies.
From the Paper "Antibodies are very important in the human immune system. According to the article Monoclonal Antibodies, Antibodies are a mixture of closely related immune system proteins, with subtle but important differences. They are produced in the blood to recognize and bind to foreign invaders, slinging them out for elimination by the body's immune defenses (Anonymous 1). This means that antibodies can be a very powerful tool for the detection and treatment of disease. The potential of antibodies for the detection and treatment can be realized because of the unique structure of antibodies."
Abstract This paper examines how the presence of antinuclear antibodies (ANA) is a helpful marker for diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus, chronic liver disease, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease and many others. In particular, it focuses on the alternatives to immunofluoresence for anti-nuclear antibody testing.
From the Paper "A scientist called Hargraves (1948) was the first to notice the anti nuclear antibodies in patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Antinuclear antibodies (ANA) are antibodies produced by the host immune system that attack the body's own tissues and organs instead of foreign invading organisms and toxins. Their production may be a result of an underlying autoimmune disease. About 5% of the population have a positive anti nuclear antibody. This percentage is higher in older ages, reaching a 15% in people ages 70 to 80 years old."
Abstract This paper discusses how antibodies and antigen serve to coat a foreign cell preventing the foreign cell from binding to other cells in the body. Binding of the antibodies and antigen to a toxin molecule prevents the foreign cell from accomplishing any of the tasks that it is intended to achieve. The paper further discusses how, never the less, this process is dependent on an effector mechanism in the complement system which has specific purposes. The compliment system serves as the overall protector while the antibodies and antigen direct the response of the compliment system which in turn destroys the foreign cells.
From the Paper "The integrity of the plasma membrane is essential for cellular survival. Could the immune system utilize this fact to destroy foreign cells that have invaded the body? How might cells of the immune system disrupt membranes of foreign cells? (Two hints: virtually all cells can secrete proteins, and some proteins form pores in membranes.) Antibodies and antigen serve to coat a foreign cell, preventing the foreign cell from binding to other cells in the body. Binding of the antibodies and antigen to a toxin molecule prevents the foreign cell from accomplishing any of the tasks that it is intended to achieve. Yet, this process is dependent on an effector mechanism in the complement system, which has specific purposes. The compliment system serves as the overall protector, while the antibodies and antigen direct the response of the compliment system, which in turn destroys the foreign cells."
Abstract This paper examines how affinity maturation is a response to an antibody that occurs in vivo and how it can be defined as the gradual increase of antibody affinity for the immunising antigen with time. It looks at how it is associated with an enhanced secondary (anamnestic) response, somatic hypermutation, isotype switching and memory development.
From the Paper "Somatic hypermutation leads to mutations in the rearranged V-D-J sequences of antibodies. The antibodies generated during the primary response use the germline V regions, but in secondary responses all the generated antibodies contain a higher number of V-D-J region mutations. Random changes are introduced into the heavy and light chain genes and may lead to an increase in affinity of the antibody to the antigen. These higher affinity antibodies are then selected to enter the memory cell pool. The somatic mutations occur within the germinal centre in close proximity to the FDC network. If the variants have a high affinity for the antigen they are selected to become either plasma cells or memory B cells [4]."
Abstract In this article, the writer looks at systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) that is also simply called lupus. The writer explains that this is an inflammatory connective tissue disease which is manifested in variable signs and symptoms. The writer notes that this condition may affect multiple organ systems with immune complexes and a large array of auto antibodies, particularly antinuclear antibodies. Further, the writer points out that there are also genetic factors that play a role in the development and expression of SLE and environmental factors may also trigger the disease in genetically susceptible hosts.
From the Paper "The cause of SLE is still unknown. This is an immunologic disorder with the production of auto antibodies. There are different triggering factors of this disease which includes sunlight exposure. Specific medications could also trigger SLE. They initiate immune response in individuals who are susceptible to develop SLE. The two most common of these are Hydralazine and Procainamide. Some anticonvulsants, antiemetics, antituberculars and antibiotics could be among those that trigger this disease."
"The pathophysiology of this disease is not completely known. Studies show that the production of abnormal antibodies by B cells remains the hallmark sign of lupus erythematosus. Such auto antibodies like anti double-stranded DNA and anti-Smith, are very specific for systemic lupus erythematosus. Anti-RNP, anti-Rho and anti-La, are also present in other autoimmune diseases. Whether the B cells themselves are intrinsically abnormal is a subject of current research. One of the underlying deficiencies in SLE may be emphasized on apoptosis, or programmed cell death; cellular antigens exposed during apoptosis incite an immune response."
A descriptive overview of the vertebrate adaptive immune response to both intra and extra-cellular pathogens with explicit focus on T-cell B-cell collaboration and antibody response.
Abstract This paper covers the major pathways by which foreign antigens are identified and dealt with through the adaptive immune response which is paramount on B-cell and T-cell responses and interaction with one another in distinct pathways and steps. It includes several diagrams and their explanations of antigens, B-Cells, T-Cells, APC's and more and their interactions and processes they go through.
From the Paper "All immune responses involving T-cell B-cell collaborations follow distinct pathways of interactions and development. These very pathways of the adaptive immune response are almost entirely dependant on the cellular interaction of B- cells and T- cells with one another. It is within each stage of these pathways and the progression of an adaptive immune response that we will concern ourselves. The following is a condensed synopsis of the adaptive immune response and the cellular interactions that will be the emphasis of this paper. Within secondary lymph tissues foreign antigen is presented to naive B-cells via their surface immunoglobulins (Igs) receptors. The same antigen is also presented to naive T-cells at this time. This presentation and subsequent recognition of antigen by both types of cells results in and end product of proliferation and development of naive B-cells into plasma cells whose function is the production of soluble immunoglobulins (antibodies), and the differentiation and development of memory B-cells whose function is to respond to subsequent exposure to the same antigen. However, this pathway is not self-sufficient and requires the direct interaction of activated T-cells, specifically "helper" T-cells (Th2 cells) 1,9. It is these T-cells in conjunction with the antigen presenting B-cells that interact to produce a hormonal response to infection. These interactions activate Th2 cells that in turn promote B-cell activation both through T-cell secreted cytokines, (interlukeinI1-2, 4 and 5), and also through direct cell to cell contacts involving specific surface proteins and corresponding receptors and the signaling initiated by the binding of these proteins to one another."
From the Paper "Catalytic antibodies are derived from chemically stable hapten which mimic reactions' transitional states. Through their binding energy, the antibodies are able to increase both the specificity and rate of the reactions. These techniques were initially applied to chemical processes which did not require catalysts. Various investigators, for example, have used catalytic antibodies to facilitate the Claisen rearrangement. More recent research, however, has focused on disfavored reactions (i.e., ring closure transformations). One day these methods may find widespread application in various fields of scientific endeavor. "
Abstract This paper describes what antigens are, the different classes of blood groups and the problems that arise when blood of different types are mixed together. It also explains the dangers associated with blood transfusions and how they can be overcome.
Outline
Introduction: Blood Transfusion
Antigens and Antibodies Blood Groups and Transfusion Reactions
Overcoming Difficulties in Transfusions
Conclusion
From the Paper "The transfusion of blood is a medically important and life saving procedure. It is important in, for example, surgery involving major blood loss, various types of anaemia, and haemophilia. Usually only some components of blood are used in specific cases, such as plasma when there is a large loss of fluid, or blood clotting factors for haemophilia."
Abstract This paper explains that, even if the HIV infection is currently dormant, the immune system produces antibodies to combat the virus which are ineffective, but their presence indicates an HIV infection. The author points out that the consensus among the medical community about the transmission of AIDS states that there is no evidence that the disease can be transmitted through such activities as casual contact, hugging, kissing or through the air or saliva: AIDS can be transmitted only through direct sexual contact, blood transfusions, hypodermic needles and from mothers to their unborn babies. The paper stresses that the central controversy in the surveillance of AIDS is not the reporting requirement, but how these records might be used.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
"The Plague"
Public Health
Conclusion
From the Paper "Instead of maintaining the present practice of voluntary testing and confidentiality, many states are considering contact tracing. Contact tracing is a form of medical surveillance in which public health officials are statutorily required to inform the sexual partners of a positive test for a disease by a patient. This process of disease control is authorized in many states for the treatment of venereal disease. A doctor reports a positive test result of a patient to the state health department; the name is entered on a register; and the state health officer then has the duty to inquire about the patient's sexual activities and to inform all sexual partners of the disease; the sexual partners then submit to their own tests."
From the Paper " HIV Testing
The causative agent in the present acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) pandemic is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV exists in various forms, including HIV.1 and HIV.2. A number of laboratory tests are currently available for their detection.
HIV is a complex retrovirus of the lentivirus subgroup. It contains two copies of single.stranded viral RNA (1:305). The HIV genome contains structural genes that encode the proteins of the whole virus particle as well as replicative enzymes. The retrovirus also contains at least eight additional regulatory and accessory genes that regulate its life cycle (1:306).
Within about 4 to 6 weeks of initial HIV infection there is a period of viremia without detectable antibodies (1:306)..."
Abstract This paper studies the medical disorder called hemophila, including definition, causes, symptoms and treatment. The paper shows that due to blood's inability to clot properly, the hemophiliac is vulnerable to a number of problems caused by excessive bleeding. The paper examines different types of hemophilia, ways to determine if a child is hemophiliac and how it restricts a person's life. The paper also discusses the future of hemophilia with the advent of better technology and medical research.
From the Paper "Other researchers have been working on gene therapy for type B hemophilia. This has also showed promising early results (Jancin, 2000). They also used genetic coding, this time to produce factor IX. Again they used a virus to introduce a properly functioning gene. In this application of gene therapy, the goal is to cause muscle tissue to produce and release the needed clotting factor in large enough amounts to prevent bleeds (Jancin, 2000). Studies were done with mice and dogs before trying it with humans.
Researchers of course proceed cautiously with such research, and in the case of Factor IX, the researchers introduced such a small amount into patients that they expected no increase in the clotting factor. However, two of the three patients showed a significant rise in Factor IX at a clinically significant level: they had reduced need for intravenously provided clotting factor during the next year (Jancin, 2000)."
Abstract This paper begins by providing some basic information about the disease - that it is a multi-factorial, multi-systemic, autoimmune disease that tends to affect women (10:1) mostly in the 2nd and 3rd decades of life. It then looks at the disease's etiology and clinical manifestations. It then discusses the differential diagnosis of the disease and finally looks at the treatment available.
From the Paper "The activation of B-cells both by genetically predetermined events and environmental triggers, which are currently unknown, leads to the loss of self recognition and is the main cause of morbidity in SLE. According to Kumar et al.(1997) The array of antibodies that are produced as a result of the overactive plasma cells tend to form complexes with corresponding antigens and directly lead to tissue damage by creating an exaggerated hypersensitive state. These antibodies tend to be destructive toward the skin, kidneys, serous membranes, joints and heart."
Abstract The first cases of Borna disease in the 17-19th century in Southern Germany exposed a fatal disease affecting the neurological systems of horses and sheep, causing behavioral and neurological symptoms. It has since been discovered, however, that the disease affects other animals and even human beings. The paper shows that research into the epidemiology and pathogenesis of the BDV is impeded, however, by a lack of universally accepted standard for its detection, especially in humans. This paper covers in detail the various methods used to detect the BDV virus and analyzes their efficiency in doing so. This is done with reference to the epidemiology of the virus that is changing significantly and speedily with the use of analytical techniques. The paper also compares these processes and gives suggestions for future research in the light of modern day studies.
From the Paper "A reason for renewed interest and research into the pathogenesis and characteristics of the BDV is the possibility recently discovered of the BDV being an etiological factor in human behavioral disorders as well. [J"rgen 1997] Numerous scientific studies are being done to accumulate evidence to clarify this issue. One study showed that 10-15% of psychiatric patients had anti-BDV antibodies as compared to only 2% in the general population. [Schizophrenia and Borna Disease Virus as a Zoonosis" 2000] Another on patients with severe depression detected anti-BDV antibodies in 30% of the hospitalized cases. [Schizophrenia and Borna Disease Virus as a Zoonosis? 2000] BDV was also detected and isolated in patients with mood disorders while BDV nucleic acids and antigens have been detected in both sera and brain tissue of psychiatric patients."
Abstract AIDS is a devastating disease that has ravaged our world over the past twenty years. The issue of AIDS in America is one of much debate that continues to challenge the medical community. This discussion examines the epidemic of AIDS in America. It provides an analysis of the most infected portion of the society and the tactics that are being implemented to stop the disease from spreading.
From the Paper "The article goes on to explain that AIDS can be transmitted in several different ways, which include; needle sticks among healthcare workers, sexual contact, transmission during pregnancy and through exposure to contaminated blood. (Rowland 1996) The disease usually attacks the body in one of three ways; autoimmunity, nervous system dysfunction and immunodeficiency. Autoimmunity causes the body to produce antibodies that work against the body's own cells. Nervous system dysfunction causes AIDS related dementia in patients. Immunodeficiency makes AIDS patients more susceptible to several illnesses including herpes and cancer. (Rowland 1996)"
Abstract This is a proposal describing a study to test the hypothesis that the macrolide, Erythromycin, normally used to treat individuals with community-acquired pneumonia, causes significant antibiotic resistance in patients in Europe, but not individuals in the United States.
From the Paper "This will basically be a retrospective analysis of data collected by Public Health laboratories in Europe and institutions such as the Center for Disease Control in the United States. The two continents should be divided into 4 geographical regions each for the sake of clarity and convenience. Previous data relating to pneumococci isolated from patients with suspected pneumonia during a chosen specific period of time spanning about 5 years should be separated from the records. The serotype cultured in the various regions, sensitivity to Erythromycin, and frequency of Erythromycin prescription by doctors in these regions for ordinary respiratory infections should be assessed."
