Abstract
This paper that examines the effect of antibiotics on the evolution of present day bacteria. These bacterial are considered in light of anti-biotic resistance. The paper also focuses on bacteria's rapid mutagenic properties. Additionally, the paper further explores how pharmaceutical companies are trying to outsmart bacteria's ability to mutate and survive. The mechanisms of action for antibiotics are provided as well as an explanation of why antibiotic resistance is so prevalent.

From the Paper
"Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928. When it was first introduced to the public in 1944, 94% of the most commonly known bacteria were still susceptible to eradication and it saved countless lives. By 1950, the number was reduced to 50% and the number of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has continued to increase. Similarly, life threatening bacterial infections are on the rise as new forms of bacteria are discovered. Many of these bacteria had their origins in disease strains that were previously treated effectively with antibiotics. However, with the rise in use of antibiotics over the past several decades in industry and agriculture along with the increase in number and types of antibiotics produced and over prescribed by physicians, bacteria being highly adaptogenic have mutated into antibiotic-resistant strains. This paper will discuss the main mechanisms of antibiotic effectivity, discuss what is leading to antibiotic resistance among bacteria, state..."

Tags:antibiotic, bacteria, resistance

Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is a widely speculated on topic that has serious consequences in the modern day and age. This paper is a high level exploration discussing how antibiotic resistance cannot be prevented. The paper cites current literature. Statistics on antibiotic prescribing patterns relative to effectiveness of the drug are also explored in the paper.

From the Paper
"According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (2001 as cited by MacKay, 2003), over 235 million prescriptions were written, dispensed and consumed. The CDC estimated that as many as 50% of them were written unnecessarily for viral infections where antibiotics would be of no value (2001 as cited by MacKay, 2003). MacKay (2003) states that it is precisely due to this type of overuse that is resulting not in overkill but under kill: antibiotic resistance. When penicillin was found to inhibit bacterial development in 1928 (Plonczynski & Plonczynski, 2005) it was considered a miracle given that infectious diseases were considered the leading cause of death at that time (Armstrong, Conn & Pinner, 1999 as cite by Plonczynski & Plonczynski, 2005). Penicillin then came into production and was released into the mainstream in the late 1940s."

Tags:antibiotics, resistance, bacteria

Abstract
The paper provides a general overview of specific strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria, the causes and the effects of antibiotic resistance. The paper explains how mutations and the overuse of antibiotics contributes greatly to antibiotic resistance, and describes how the MRSA form of staph is resistant to antibiotics.

Outline:
Introduction
Antibiotic Resistance Development
Conclusion

From the Paper
"According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention antibiotics or antimicrobial drugs are drugs that fight infections that occur as a result of bacteria. The CDC explains that once antibiotic resistance takes place the bacteria or other microbes has become resistant to the curing effects of the antibiotic. This simply means that antibiotics that were once used to cure bacterial infections no longer work. The CDC further explains that bacterial change is what leads to decreasing or completely destroying the capacity of the drug to work. In fact once a bacterium becomes resistant to antibiotics it continues to multiply and make the condition worse for the patient."

Tags:mutations, MRSA, staph, infection, microbes

Abstract
The paper outlines the history of antibiotic use and early resistance, and looks at the current situation in the medical and microbiological communities. The paper then explores the phenomena of bacterial antibiotic resistance from a microbiological perspective.

Outline:
Introduction
Cases of Antibiotic Resistance
Microbiological Responses to Antibiotic Resistance
Conclusion

From the Paper
"From a microbiological standpoint, as Hughes and Andersson point out, the logical development of resistance among bacterial cells is progressive. Survival of the fittest creates bacterium that are resistant to treatment through allowing such treatment to kill off bacterial cells that are weak, leaving behind those that are adaptive and therefore capable of resisting antibiotic treatment. These resistant bugs then reproduce in the original host or in new hosts repeatedly as a simple means of normal functioning. When hosts deposit these adaptive bacteria on surfaces, in the air or directly to new hosts the bacteria then goes through the whole process again, and each time the new bacteria that emerges is more capable of resistance to standard treatment. Hughes and Andersson in fact argue that if antibiotic treatment were never introduced into the system bacteria would not have needed to adapt microbiologically to survive and might never have become capable of resistance to treatment. (Hughes & Andersson, 2001, p. 16)"

Tags:drugs, treatment, penicillin, phages, MRSA, super, bugs

Abstract
This paper describes the technique of Antibiotic Resistance Analysis (ARA), developed by Dr. Bruce Wiggins of James Madison University, as a means of differentiating between different sources of fecal pollution in the rivers and streams in the Rockingham County area. The paper reviews the latest Bacterial Source Tracking (BST) techniques and argues why ARA is needed. The paper also proposes a plan that would test the temporal stability of the existing watershed library.

From the Paper
"Unsafe drinking water is a problem that not just third-world and developing countries face. Maintaining strict water quality standards is something any government should be responsible for, but it wasn't until June 11th, 1999 that a lawsuit finally forced the Environmental Protection Agency to be more aware of the problem. The federal Clean Water Act of 1972 states that it is the federal government's job to identify impaired waters if the state government does not (3). This was the main argument of several grassroots organizations when they sued the EPA. They argued that the EPA must set total maximum daily load (TMDL) restrictions. TMDL means the maximum amount of a pollutant that a body of water can receive in one day, and still meet the water-quality standards. Furthermore, TMDLs must include a plan to lower the amount of pollutants for bodies of water that do not currently meet water-quality standards (3). The grassroots organizations won the lawsuit, and the court order mandated several changes take place. First, the EPA now ensures TMDL amounts, and also reviews Virginia's plans for each year. Moreover, "all readily available data and information must be used to identify the state's most heavily polluted waters" (3)."

Tags:act, agency, bacterial, biology, classification, coli, correct, daily, enterococci, enterococcus, environmental, epa, escherichia, filtration, protection, ribotyping

Abstract
This paper examines antibiotic resistance in two government hospitals in the United States. It outlines an experiment designed to determine levels of anti-biotic resistant respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in two hospitals and an intervention to reduce rates

Abstract
The paper discusses how antibiotics have kept our society safe from the harmful effects of many diseases since the discovery of penicillin in the 1920's. It shows that in the decades since its discovery, antibiotics have been so widely used that bacteria have developed resistance to them. Once this resistance has been developed, antibiotics become useless. The paper examines how, through the misuse of antibiotics, society may effectively find itself returned to the pre-1920 days where no effective treatment is available for bacterial diseases like smallpox and tuberculosis. It discusses ways to prevent this from happening and to manage the problem.

From the Paper
"Part of the problem relates to the misuse of antibiotics and especially the over-prescription of them. One article reports that "more than 50 million of the 150 million antibiotic prescriptions written each year for patients outside of hospitals are unnecessary" (Nordenberg). Consumer awareness involves realizing that antibiotics are not necessary for every condition. For example, the common cold is a viral infection, not a bacterial infection. Taking antibiotics for a cold does nothing to cure it. The emphasis here needs to be put on both doctors and patients. Patients need to use antibiotics only as necessary and not treat them as a "just in case" drug. At the same time, doctors need to determine that a patient has a bacterial problem before prescribing antibiotics."

Tags:AIDS, Bacterial, diseases, bubonic, plague, Staphylococcus, aureus

Abstract
The paper begins with a description on how antibiotics have proven useful to the eradication of certain diseases. It then turns to address the problem of antibiotic resistance, and states the two areas that need to be effectively managed in order to solve this problem public awareness and the development of new research. The two areas are explored in more depth. The issue of misuse of antibiotics is discussed and the goal of the Center for Disease Control (CDC) is explained. The paper concludes with an explanation on how a combination of the two areas involved can help improve the situation of antibiotic resistance.

From the Paper
"The discovery of antibiotics in the 1920's changed the future of medicine and meant that deadly diseases, including plagues, could be easily controlled. Prior to the introduction of penicillin, diseases like smallpox, tuberculosis and the bubonic plague were major problems. In modern society, these diseases are almost non-existent. In modern times though, the problem of antibiotic resistance has arisen. If organisms and diseases become resistant to antibiotics then the situation returns to one like the pre 1920's, where there is no defense against these diseases. To prevent this from happening, the problem of antibiotic resistance needs to be managed. The problem can be effectively managed by concentrating on two areas."

Tags:disease, management, public, awareness, research, misuse, CDC, defense, bacteria, virus

Abstract
An essay about antibiotic production. The author examines the historical view of how antibiotics were first discovered, how antibiotics are naturally produced in microorganisms and the biotech aspect of it with focus on how today's antibiotics are produced commercially.

From the Paper
"Today, some 5000 different antibiotics are known. Of these, around 100 are currently used to treat infections. Some are broad spectrum weapons, while others have more specialized applications. In the continuing battle against infectious disease, substances produced by living microbes continue to hold the center of the stage. Microorganisms are not only the workhorses that manufacture well established antibiotics, they also continue to be the source of new "magic bullets" to deal with hitherto untreatable infections, and to combat disease causing bacteria that have become resistant to the already existing armamentarium of drugs. The antimicrobial capacity of the microbial world seems inexhaustible. "

Tags:chrysogenum, flemming, notatum, penecillium, penicillium

Abstract
This paper summarizes the conditions that lead to antibiotic resistance. The author examines aspects such as over-prescription, high level of both bacteria and antibiotics in hospitals and the use of antibiotics in livestock feed that lead to a resistance. The author discusses the increasing uselessness of newer antibiotics and new strategies for preventing the spread of infectious disease.

From the Paper
'Antibiotic resistance has been building in bacterial populations for decades, but advances in medicine (i.e. new types of antibiotics) have always stayed one step ahead. Antibiotics are becoming harder and harder to develop there is a limited number of ways to recreate antibiotics, and drug companies may have come to the end of the list. Vancomycin " considered the drug of last resort when all other antibiotics fail " is no longer a sure cure. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) have been reported in hospitals across the U.S., and some of these infections are untreatable with any current antibiotic. However, vancomycin is being prescribed more and more often when other drugs fail and VRE populations are growing (Mitchell, 1998)."

Tags:disease, drugs, enterococcus, epidemic, health, hospitals, infections, mrsa, resistance, resistant, staphylococcus, streptococcus, tuberculosis, vancomycin, vre