Abstract This paper that examines the effect of antibiotics on the evolution of present day bacteria. These bacterial are considered in light of anti-biotic resistance. The paper also focuses on bacteria's rapid mutagenic properties. Additionally, the paper further explores how pharmaceutical companies are trying to outsmart bacteria's ability to mutate and survive. The mechanisms of action for antibiotics are provided as well as an explanation of why antibiotic resistance is so prevalent.
From the Paper "Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928. When it was first introduced to the public in 1944, 94% of the most commonly known bacteria were still susceptible to eradication and it saved countless lives. By 1950, the number was reduced to 50% and the number of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has continued to increase. Similarly, life threatening bacterial infections are on the rise as new forms of bacteria are discovered. Many of these bacteria had their origins in disease strains that were previously treated effectively with antibiotics. However, with the rise in use of antibiotics over the past several decades in industry and agriculture along with the increase in number and types of antibiotics produced and over prescribed by physicians, bacteria being highly adaptogenic have mutated into antibiotic-resistant strains. This paper will discuss the main mechanisms of antibiotic effectivity, discuss what is leading to antibiotic resistance among bacteria, state..."
Abstract Antibiotic resistance is a widely speculated on topic that has serious consequences in the modern day and age. This paper is a high level exploration discussing how antibiotic resistance cannot be prevented. The paper cites current literature. Statistics on antibiotic prescribing patterns relative to effectiveness of the drug are also explored in the paper.
From the Paper "According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (2001 as cited by MacKay, 2003), over 235 million prescriptions were written, dispensed and consumed. The CDC estimated that as many as 50% of them were written unnecessarily for viral infections where antibiotics would be of no value (2001 as cited by MacKay, 2003). MacKay (2003) states that it is precisely due to this type of overuse that is resulting not in overkill but under kill: antibiotic resistance. When penicillin was found to inhibit bacterial development in 1928 (Plonczynski & Plonczynski, 2005) it was considered a miracle given that infectious diseases were considered the leading cause of death at that time (Armstrong, Conn & Pinner, 1999 as cite by Plonczynski & Plonczynski, 2005). Penicillin then came into production and was released into the mainstream in the late 1940s."
Abstract The paper discusses the necessity to research new antibiotics and other compounds with biological activities because of bacterial resistance. The paper then lists various infections, their treatment and their mobility as well as discusses methods of genetic manipulation of marine cultures in the search for newer antibiotics. The paper also investigates. In addition, the paper looks at the group of bacteria belonging to the genus Streptomyces, which has great antibiotic properties.
Outline:
Resistance to Antibiotics Fungal Infections and Antifungal Antibiotics Antibiotics produced by Streptomyces
Conclusion
From the Paper "(Gupte, et al., 2002). Healthy individuals are prone to a host of superficial infections such as Athletes foot and nail infections, and in rare occasions, systemic infections that are life-threatening such as histoplasmosis (Barrett, 2002). However, debilitated or immunocompromised individuals such as AIDS patients, transplant recipients and cancer patients are susceptible to a large number of opportunistic systemic fungal infections. This is due to the inability of the patient's immune response to fight normally benign fungi. Other individuals infected have been those subjected to invasive medical procedures such as the use of prosthetic devices and vascular catheters and extensive surgery (Georgopapadakou and Walsh, 1994, 1996). Fungal infections from these susceptible patients are quite often difficult to diagnose and treat and this leads to high mortality rate. "
Abstract The paper discusses the rise of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA), which is a superbug arising from the often unnecessary usage of antibiotics. The paper focuses on the rise of antibiotics in livestock and their feedlots and also notes the often unnecessary prescriptions of antibiotics by physicians. The paper asserts that if we don't change now, there may be more bacterial infections that become immune to treatment with antibiotics.
From the Paper "In 1968 the first case of MRSA was discovered. The patient was of middle age, had been in the hospital for quite some time, and had just had surgery. The patient had been on antibiotics to prevent infection. Little did the doctors know, but the infection was developing despite the powerful dosage of antibiotics, and MRSA was formed.
"Since 1968, there has been an alarming increase of MRSA reported each year. We, as a society, have allowed antibiotics to get the upper hand - creating a situation that is in need of immediate and thorough review."
Abstract An essay about antibiotic production. The author examines the historical view of how antibiotics were first discovered, how antibiotics are naturally produced in microorganisms and the biotech aspect of it with focus on how today's antibiotics are produced commercially.
From the Paper "Today, some 5000 different antibiotics are known. Of these, around 100 are currently used to treat infections. Some are broad spectrum weapons, while others have more specialized applications. In the continuing battle against infectious disease, substances produced by living microbes continue to hold the center of the stage. Microorganisms are not only the workhorses that manufacture well established antibiotics, they also continue to be the source of new "magic bullets" to deal with hitherto untreatable infections, and to combat disease causing bacteria that have become resistant to the already existing armamentarium of drugs. The antimicrobial capacity of the microbial world seems inexhaustible. "
Abstract This paper summarizes the conditions that lead to antibiotic resistance. The author examines aspects such as over-prescription, high level of both bacteria and antibiotics in hospitals and the use of antibiotics in livestock feed that lead to a resistence. The author discusses the increasing uselessness of newer antibiotics and new strategies for preventing the spread of infectious disease.
From the Paper 'Antibiotic resistance has been building in bacterial populations for decades, but advances in medicine (i.e. new types of antibiotics) have always stayed one step ahead. Antibiotics are becoming harder and harder to develop ? there is a limited number of ways to recreate antibiotics, and drug companies may have come to the end of the list. Vancomycin ? considered the drug of last resort when all other antibiotics fail ? is no longer a sure cure. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) have been reported in hospitals across the U.S., and some of these infections are untreatable with any current antibiotic. However, vancomycin is being prescribed more and more often when other drugs fail ? and VRE populations are growing (Mitchell, 1998)."
Abstract The paper begins with a description on how antibiotics have proven useful to the eradication of certain diseases. It then turns to address the problem of antibiotic resistance, and states the two areas that need to be effectively managed in order to solve this problem ? public awareness and the development of new research. The two areas are explored in more depth. The issue of misuse of antibiotics is discussed and the goal of the Center for Disease Control (CDC) is explained. The paper concludes with an explanation on how a combination of the two areas involved can help improve the situation of antibiotic resistance.
From the Paper "The discovery of antibiotics in the 1920's changed the future of medicine and meant that deadly diseases, including plagues, could be easily controlled. Prior to the introduction of penicillin, diseases like smallpox, tuberculosis and the bubonic plague were major problems. In modern society, these diseases are almost non-existent. In modern times though, the problem of antibiotic resistance has arisen. If organisms and diseases become resistant to antibiotics then the situation returns to one like the pre 1920?s, where there is no defense against these diseases. To prevent this from happening, the problem of antibiotic resistance needs to be managed. The problem can be effectively managed by concentrating on two areas."
Abstract The proliferation of antibiotic-resistant organisms has been the topic of much debate for many years. The overuse of antibiotics has created new strains of disease that no longer respond to antibiotics. This paper discusses two of the most common antibiotic-resistant organisms, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) and Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci (VRE).
From the Paper "The bacterium is usually spread through contact with other people that are colonized or infected with the germ. (Control of Antibiotic Resistant Organisms in Home Settings 2003) According to the Virginia Department of Health ?The germ can be spread by direct contact with the person or by the hands of someone caring for the person touching others before washing hands. MRSA can survive for an hour or more on environmental surfaces such as floors, sinks, blood pressure cuffs, etc. but these are NOT the most likely source of spread.? (Control of Antibiotic Resistant Organisms in Home Settings 2003)"
Abstract The paper discusses enediyne antibiotics' potential as an anti-tumor treatment and as an inhibitor of aggressive cancer growth. The paper describes the function and structure of these antibiotics and lists some of the known enediynes and their derivation from microorganisms.
From the Paper "Enediyne antibiotics have garnered increasing interest from the fields of chemistry, biology, and chemical sciences because of their great potential as an anti-tumor treatment. It has been said that enediyne antibiotics are 1,000 times more potent than adriamycin, one of the most effective and clinically used antitumor antibiotics (Liu and Shen 382). Enediynes have also been demonstrated to inhibit the growth aggressive cancers such as of cervical carcinoma, leukemia, and melanoma (Shao 50). Enediynes are uniquely characterized by their molecular architectures, mechanism of action, as biological activities. Currently, there are three types of enediyne antibiotics: the calicheamicin-esperamicin type; the dynemicin type, and; the chromoprotoein type. The first group includes the calicheamicins, esperamicins, and nanenamicin. The chromoproteins are neocarzinostatin, kedarcidin, C-1027, and maduroprotein."
Abstract This paper examines antibiotic resistance in two government hospitals in the United States. It outlines an experiment designed to determine levels of anti-biotic resistant respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in two hospitals and an intervention to reduce rates
Abstract This paper describes the technique of Antibiotic Resistance Analysis (ARA), developed by Dr. Bruce Wiggins of James Madison University, as a means of differentiating between different sources of fecal pollution in the rivers and streams in the Rockingham County area. The paper reviews the latest Bacterial Source Tracking (BST) techniques and argues why ARA is needed. The paper also proposes a plan that would test the temporal stability of the existing watershed library.
From the Paper "Unsafe drinking water is a problem that not just third-world and developing countries face. Maintaining strict water quality standards is something any government should be responsible for, but it wasn?t until June 11th, 1999 that a lawsuit finally forced the Environmental Protection Agency to be more aware of the problem. The federal Clean Water Act of 1972 states that it is the federal government's job to identify impaired waters if the state government does not (3). This was the main argument of several grassroots organizations when they sued the EPA. They argued that the EPA must set total maximum daily load (TMDL) restrictions. TMDL means the maximum amount of a pollutant that a body of water can receive in one day, and still meet the water-quality standards. Furthermore, TMDLs must include a plan to lower the amount of pollutants for bodies of water that do not currently meet water-quality standards (3). The grassroots organizations won the lawsuit, and the court order mandated several changes take place. First, the EPA now ensures TMDL amounts, and also reviews Virginia's plans for each year. Moreover, "all readily available data and information must be used to identify the state's most heavily polluted waters" (3)."
Abstract In light of the rise of antibiotic resistant bacteria and the ensuing difficulties of treatment for the medical community, patients are expanding their treatment options to include more nontraditional techniques. This paper examines how Manuka honey, a honey produced in New Zealand, offers the possibility of an effective alternative treatment for H. Pylori infection and wound infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The resistance of the traditional medical establishment to nontraditional treatment methods has meant that quantitative, evidence-based studies into the effectiveness of Manuka honey are not common. This paper presents a randomized, double-blind, controlled study that investigates the effectiveness of Manuka honey treatment for H. Pylori and antibiotic-resistant organisms such as MRSA and gram-negative bacteria.
From the Paper "Not long after penicillin was introduced for the treatment of a variety of infections, the first strains of penicillin-resistant bacteria began to appear. The nature of the bacterial lifecycle made them more capable of rapid evolution to respond to antibiotics. Bacteria reproduce so quickly (usually on the order of a few hours) that any mutations introduced are rapidly propagated through the generations. When a chance mutation enables a bacterium to resist antibiotics, this bacterium survives and quickly replicates, passing this resistant mutation on to subsequent generations. The problem is made more severe when doctors prescribe antibiotics more as a treatment of psychological complaints than genuine bacterial infections. To further complicate the issue of antibiotic resistance, patients sometimes do not finish a course of antibiotics. Assuming they're well and the infection has been cured, patients may stop a course of treatment prematurely. This results in the less hardy bacteria being killed off, while the more resistant bacteria remain to reinfect, and reinfect more virulently."
Abstract This paper presents a formal biology laboratory report. It presents a procedure that was devised to remove all bacteria from a chicken wing. It begins by discussing the bacteria that can be present on chicken wings and the possible solutions to the problem. The paper then reports on a test for the efficacy of certain antibiotics on the bacteria of the untreated wing.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Study Organisms
Treatment Of Choice For Elimination Of Bacteria From A Chicken Wing
Serial Dilutions Of Washes From Both Wings
Gathering Of Bacterial Cultures From Both Wings
Effects Of Various Antibiotics On Three Types Of Bacteria
Results
Control Agar Petri Plate
Treatment Agar Petri Plate
Antibiotic Disk Results
Chicken Wing Bacteria
Discussion
Appendix
From the Paper "It is important to remove all bacteria, such as salmonella, from raw foods to avoid any foodborne diseases. Four serial dilutions were created in microfuge test tubes for a control chicken wing and a treatment chicken wing. The treatment chicken wing was treated using vinegar, salt, and heat. Cultures from each microfuge test tube were streaked on two different agar plates and left to reproduce, incubated at 30o Celsius for 22 hours. The proposed treatment of the chicken wing proved to be 100% effective producing no visible colonies on the agar plate. Four antibiotics - penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol - were used to treat E. coli, M. luteus, and chicken wing bacteria. The bacteria cultures were smeared on three different Petri dishes, and divided into four quadrants where antibiotic disks were placed. After 22 hours of incubation at 30o Celsius, diameters of the rings of clear agar around each antibiotic disk were recorded. Chloramphenicol produced the largest diameter on all three Petri dishes, while penicillin proved to work best on gram-positive bacteria. The bacteria on the chicken wing were gram-negative and most resistant to tetracycline."
Abstract The paper explores the growing trends in antibiotic resistance and discusses non-conventional therapies for combating bacterial infection, which include use of probiotics. The paper explains how probiotics relieve bacterial infection, inflammation and help restore the balance of healthy bacteria in the gut. The paper also reviews evidence supporting the use of probiotics in lieu of or as complementary therapy when antibiotics are used to treat certain illnesses. The paper concludes that
more research should be conducted to examine the full potential benefits of probiotic therapy for patients with all kinds of diseases. The health and survival of mankind may depend on it.
Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Conclusions
Appendix
From the Paper "The prevalence of antibiotic resistance has stimulated much interest in the use of probiotics or live microbial supplements to combat infections otherwise resistant to traditional antibiotic therapy. In recent years overuse of antibiotics have stimulated antibiotic resistant strains of disease rendering antibiotics useless in many cases (Diped, 2003).
"While the discovery of antibiotics marked a changing point in modern medicine, in recent years scientists have begun to realize that the health benefits of antibiotics may be much more short lived than initially anticipated. As such researchers are struggling to find complementary and alternative methods for treating drug resistant forms of disease that antibiotic therapy once proved sufficient for."
Tags: infection, alternative, complementary, medicine
Abstract This paper discusses the common causes and diagnostics of these two throat diseases. It focuses on the concern over the over-prescription of antibiotics in treating upper respiratory infections (URIs) and tonsillitis. It discusses clinical concerns and possible complications, as well as morbidity and mortality rates. It concludes with other suggested treatments.
Antimicrobial Overuse in Standard Streptococcal Pharyngitis and Tonsillitis
Causes and Diagnostic Complications
Clinical Concerns
Streptococcal Pharyngitis
Morbidity and Mortality Rates
Symptoms of GAS Pharyngitis
Diagnostics then Treatment
Streptococcal Tonsillitis
Symptomology
Alternate Causal Factors
Primary Causal Factors
Standard Diagnostic Tests
Conclusions
From the Paper "While appropriate antibiotic treatment of group A streptococcus (GAS) pharyngitis leads to more rapid resolution of symptoms and helps prevent rheumatic fever, antibiotic treatment of acute pharyngitis caused by organisms other than GAS is of negligible clinical value, exposes patients to the risk of complications from antibiotic therapy, and promotes emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Therefore, the pertinent clinical issue in the evaluation of patients with acute pharyngitis is the differentiation of GAS infection from other causes.
Additionally, growing concerns over bacterial resistance make monitoring acute tonsillitis with throat swabs for culture and sensitivity an important endeavor. Relying only on clinical criteria, such as the presence of exudate, erythema, fever, and lymphadenopathy, is not an accurate method for distinguishing GABHS from viral tonsillitis."
