Abstract This paper discusses the problem of medicine's inability to induce antigen-specific immune tolerance, the final technical obstacle to bringing face transplants into widespread clinical application. The paper presents an overview of historic and current immunological research - from the use of chimerism, to the use of monoclonal antibodies to control T-cell activation - and its role in future prospects for a non-pharmaceutical strategy for tolerance induction in humans. The paper highlights studies that have examined tolerance in recipients of composite tissue allografts (CTAs), with emphasis on studies using animal models involving skin allografts, and with the intent of providing insight into the issues presented by transplantation of a face. It includes graphs and photographs to illustrate this.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
CTA Study Goals
Antigenicity of Facial Allograft Components
Immune Tolerance and Chimerism
T-cells: Activation and Blockage
Memory Cells: The Ghost in the Immune Machine
Conclusion
From the Paper "Investigators are exploring several strategies in an attempt to provide medicine with safe and effective pharmaceuticals and clinical protocols for inducing tolerance after transplant. These include creating and using chimerism, and developing targeted bio-engineered monoclonal antibodies to inactivate or destroy T cells. This review, in its overview of historical and current immunological research, provides insight into the development of a T-cell-based strategy from a basic understanding of chimerism. This review also highlights studies that examine tolerance in recipients of CTA transplants, with specific emphasis on those using skin allograft animal models."
Tags: medical, operation, plastic, surgery, anti-immune, system
Abstract This paper analyzes the topic of immunization of children in the United States. Specifically, it discusses why the immunization rate of children in the U.S. is so high and the validity of the reasons why some parents choose not to immunize their children. Most children in the United States receive immunization from a variety of diseases when they are toddlers. Yet, some parents choose not to immunize their children for a variety of reasons. The paper questions whether these children are protected adequately and whether they pose a danger to other, already immunized children.
From the Paper "Most people who immunize their children do so because they believe in the validity of the claims of the health profession that immunization saves lives, and because it is required before their children can enter school. There are also dire warnings from doctors and the health community regarding not immunizing children. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) web site notes: "Parents should be aware that withholding vaccinations leaves their child vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases in the event of an outbreak" (Editors). Recognizing there are barriers to many children receiving their vaccines, including lack of knowledge, lack of funds, and fear, a nationwide initiative was created in 1993 titled the Childhood Immunization Initiative (CII), which had a goal of inoculating 90 percent of two-year-old children. The campaign was extremely successful. "Nationwide there was 91% to 95% coverage achieved for individual vaccines" (Horner and Murphy 122). Today, immunization remains at about 95 percent of the children in the United States vaccinated by the time they enter school (Editors)."
Tags: Center, for, Disease, Control, CDC, natural, immunity
Abstract This paper begins with the presentation of a flowchart highlighting the body's immune system response at the cellular level incorporating both the cell mediated and humoral immune systems. Following this, a discussion of the immune system's response to the presence of an allergen is discussed and how allergy treatments affect the immune system response.
From the Paper "The human body has two main components to its immune system: the Cell Mediated Response and the Humoral Response. While both are unique responses of the immune system, there is strong interplay between the two. The following flowchart will present the immune system's response to attack. The presence of an allergen is not generally a life-threatening situation requiring a full immunological response, however, that is often exactly what happens. The following section will discuss the various components of the immune system that are involved in an allergic response and how treatment of allergies affects the immune system. In response to an allergen, the immune system mounts a defense. There is dispute in the medical community whether an allergen is actually a foreign substance or not (Dr. Danielle West, personal communication, January 17, 2006) however the key is how the immune system reacts to"
Abstract This paper looks at the lymphatic system and the immune system. It compares blood, lymph and interstitial fluid, and compares lymph nodes with the spleen. It then examines humoral and cell-mediated immunity, primary and secondary immune responses, and the role of complement.
Tags: lymph, complement, cell-mediated vs humoral immunity
Abstract This paper discusses the evolutionary development of vertebrates and the corresponding development of the adaptive immune system. It argues that the adaptive immune response is superior to the innate response, thereby allowing for the evolution of larger and more complex species, specifically, the vertebrates.
From the Paper "Survival is at once both the most primitive and the most vital aim of every organism that has ever existed. Unfortunately, the survival of any organism depends most heavily on its ability to interact with the surrounding environment in such essential tasks as metabolism and respiration. For inherent within these necessary interactions is the risk of the compromise of that organism's integrity and separation from the surrounding atmosphere. The development by living beings of immunological protection against this bodily invasion by foreign matter and additional living beings was perhaps the single greatest accomplishment in the evolution of life on earth. For such immunity, grounded in an organism's ability to distinguish between self and non-self, affords an adaptive advantage unparalleled in any other system. With time and evolution, this immunological protection grew, and certainly continues to grow, increasingly more complex, resulting in the production of organisms ever more fit to prudently interact with the environment around them. The ultimate consequence is the establishment of species that, due to their superior level of adaptation through superior immunological protection, survive better in their given environment. Evidence in favor of this theory of immunological evolution is most apparent in the evolution of the somewhat primitive invertebrates into the more highly developed vertebrates. Aside from being more complex in terms of anatomy, the vertebrates exhibit vastly superior immunological protection from the surrounding environment; this protection is the very basis for the considerable anatomical development of vertebrates over invertebrates."
Abstract The paper describes the general features of the adaptive immune system (especially in relation to innate immunity) in vertebrates, delineates the processes that took place for this complex system to evolve and the reasons behind its evolution.
From the Paper "Microscopic organisms are the most ubiquitous form of life throughout the biosphere. Many of them are parasitic and cause disease. To protect themselves against invasion by pathogens and even cells from an organism of the same species, all animals possess the means to systematically distinguish and eliminate non-self. Based on the diversity, flexibility and specificity of recognition and effector mechanisms, however, the complexity of this system varies across metazoan phyla. From relatively simple histocompatibility reactions mediated by interleukin-like proteins in sponges, to sophisticated interplay of the innate and adaptive immunity in jawed vertebrates, the increased intricacy of the immune response is positively correlated with such features as: complex morphology, increased size and lifespan as well as K-selected reproductive strategy. Thus, the fact that vertebrates exhibit all of the aforementioned characteristics may be the key reason why they are the only group of animals with an adaptive immunity."
A descriptive overview of the vertebrate adaptive immune response to both intra and extra-cellular pathogens with explicit focus on T-cell B-cell collaboration and antibody response.
Abstract This paper covers the major pathways by which foreign antigens are identified and dealt with through the adaptive immune response which is paramount on B-cell and T-cell responses and interaction with one another in distinct pathways and steps. It includes several diagrams and their explanations of antigens, B-Cells, T-Cells, APC's and more and their interactions and processes they go through.
From the Paper "All immune responses involving T-cell B-cell collaborations follow distinct pathways of interactions and development. These very pathways of the adaptive immune response are almost entirely dependant on the cellular interaction of B- cells and T- cells with one another. It is within each stage of these pathways and the progression of an adaptive immune response that we will concern ourselves. The following is a condensed synopsis of the adaptive immune response and the cellular interactions that will be the emphasis of this paper. Within secondary lymph tissues foreign antigen is presented to naive B-cells via their surface immunoglobulins (Igs) receptors. The same antigen is also presented to naive T-cells at this time. This presentation and subsequent recognition of antigen by both types of cells results in and end product of proliferation and development of naive B-cells into plasma cells whose function is the production of soluble immunoglobulins (antibodies), and the differentiation and development of memory B-cells whose function is to respond to subsequent exposure to the same antigen. However, this pathway is not self-sufficient and requires the direct interaction of activated T-cells, specifically "helper" T-cells (Th2 cells) 1,9. It is these T-cells in conjunction with the antigen presenting B-cells that interact to produce a hormonal response to infection. These interactions activate Th2 cells that in turn promote B-cell activation both through T-cell secreted cytokines, (interlukeinI1-2, 4 and 5), and also through direct cell to cell contacts involving specific surface proteins and corresponding receptors and the signaling initiated by the binding of these proteins to one another."
Abstract In this paper the writer first looks at the blood vessels and their functions. Then the writer discusses the meaning of "immunization" and autoimmune diseases. The paper then studies how various diseases affect the lungs. Finally, the writer discusses the function of the nephron, the functional unit of the kidney.
From the Paper "Arteries arterioles and capillaries carry oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body and capillaries venules and veins carry de-oxygenated blood back to the lungs for re-oxygenation. The only arteries which carry oxygen-poor blood are the pulmonary arteries which carry this blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation. The only veins which carry oxygen-rich blood are the pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. The pulmonary arteries ... "
Abstract This paper examines how the relationship between age and immune system deficiency is a complicated one and how on occasion, a counter-intuitive one. This paper also offers some possible further avenues of study that researchers may wish to consider as they continue to learn more about the human body and its efforts to protect itself from harm.
Abstract This essay argues that Ernest Hemingway's "The Sun Also Rises" is anti-Semitic in terms of its treatment of the character Robert Cohn. Cohn is painted in a negative light and none of the characters like him. Cohn is the anti-hero, yet he has Jewishness intentionally imposed upon him. In this respect, "The Sun Also Rises" involves anti-Semitism.
Abstract The following assignment is for a third year sociology course. The topic discussed is collective social behaviour. The collective social behavior examined in this assignment is anti-war demonstrations. The writer uses social contagion theory and emergent norm theory in order to examine the nature of anti-war demonstrations.
From the Paper "Collective behavior is a very broad area of study. For example, in Collective Behavior Erich Goode states, 'Rumors and legends, fads, and collective protest- these and other social phenomena make up the subject matter of the field of collective Behavior'. Collective behavior is the relatively spontaneous, unstructured, extra institutional behavior of a fairly large number of individuals. The fact that collective behavior is such a diverse area of study means that many activities can be used to examine it. For this paper, demonstrations against the war in Iraq or anti-war demonstrations as they are commonly called will be used to examine many of the theories about collective behavior."
Abstract This paper summarizes the debate between the Federalists and Anti-federalists of the constitutional congress. It suggests some ongoing problems in American public life which demonstrate the main issues which drove that debate, far from being resolved during the constitution's ratification, continue to resonate in current events. This paper discusses the Ratification Debate and the major issues which drove the debate between the Federalists and the Anti-federalists: Distribution of power, protection of rights, limitations of institutions and the ongoing Relevance.
From the Paper "In the last few days of September in 1787, the Confederation Congress met to debate and construct a new Constitution of the United States. The document they wrote and sent for ratification to the thirteen states that made up the newly-formed country was intended to replace the Articles of Confederation that had ordered the nation since its inception. The nation was reaching a crisis point, as the experiment had been going poorly. Surprisingly, perhaps, the problem was not one of the many possible economic problems that new nations are likely to experience when reconstructing after a long and difficult war. As Gordon Wood (1969) argues, the general economy was running well and people felt comfortable and even prosperous (p. 395). Rather, the concerns that brought the nation's leading politicians together were primarily political. "
Abstract This paper discusses how in terms of ideologies, actions, and goals that exist, or should exist in order for the anti-globalization movement to develop into a successful global social movement, there is general agreement that there must be a greater emphasis on social and political issues such as gender equality, and economic issues such as product music and entertainment product copyright protection. The paper further discusses that these are only two of a multitude of important issues that need to be addressed, but they reflect the anti-globalization movement's fundamental goal of protecting the social, political, and economic rights of individuals, groups, and societies as globalization expands. For example, globalization has presented many challenges and opportunities for the transnational women's movement.
A discussion on the way that the punk subculture re-emerged in recent years in response to the rise of the far right in Switzerland and as part of the international anti-fascist and anti-globalization movements.
Abstract The paper focuses on the evolution of punk and its mutation into the more politically charged anarcho-punk movement and explores the violent side of the extreme left - both as an international force and in particular in Switzerland. The paper then discusses the Bern-based Antifa Switzerland group and explores the motivations of the Black Bloc anarchists. The paper highlights the use of violence in the anti-fascist movement and the connection between today's violent anarcho-punks with the ideals of the original punk movement. Several photographs are included with the paper.
Outline:
Introduction
Punk's First Wave
Punk Arrives in Switzerland
Switzerland, Anarcho-Punk, and Post-war Politics in the 21st Century
Conclusion
From the Paper "The media, however, interpreted the punks' image, music, and reckless behavior as a real threat to the status quo. This culminated in December of 1976 when the Sex Pistols and members of the Bromley Contingent appeared on the Bill Grundy television show in England. At the time of this momentous event, punk was still in its early stages. The public-at-large had little way of knowing about punk at the time. What they saw was a group of extravagantly dressed young people, visibly intoxicated, who took relish in using offensive words and insulting the host of the program in a manner that went way beyond the accepted morals of the time. The Bill Grundy episode would spiral the fledgling youth subculture into the wider cultural spotlight. At that point, punk was no longer a tiny subculture, but a mass media spectacle that would shock the conservative British public and inspire similar-minded youth all over the world."
Argues that over-prescribing anti-depressants world-wide could prevent rape survivors from seeking and receiving treatment for depression and other mental health diseases.
Abstract This paper contends that the skyrocketing number of prescriptions for anti-depressants recently has caused some to worry that patients, such as rape victims, who could benefit from the addition of medication in their recovery, might not be able to get the much-needed medicine.
From the Paper "The recent FDA decision regarding SSRI's (Selective Seratonin Reuptake Inhibitors) has caused the medical community to scale down anti-depressant prescriptions in recent months. This project in intended to shed light on the growing problem of over-prescribing anti-depressants and the effects that ultimately could prevent rape survivors from receiving the much needed medications they need for recovery."
