Abstract The central claim of "deep ecology" is that we need to correct an anthropocentric bias in our attitudes to the nonhuman world, and in particular to extend moral concern across time and across species. This paper will examine the benefits and the shortcomings of anthropocentrism within the framework of 'deep ecology'. As well, this paper will attempt to demonstrate both the value and some of the limitations of this framework with respect to the problem of anthropocentrism.
This paper reviews two writings on ecotheology: the first chapter of "First along the River" by Benjamin Kline and "Ecocentrism and the Anthropocentric Detour" by George Sessions
1,415 words (approx. 5.7 pages), 2 sources, 2002, $ 47.95
Abstract This paper discusses that , in the first chapter of "First along the River", Benjamin Kline traces the philosophical foundations of Western society's belief that humanity determines nature and that the needs of the environment are subordinate to human needs. The author points out that the philosophical underpinnings of human's relationship with nature have shifted from divine sanction to scientific principles. The paper continues that, in "Ecocentrism and the Anthropocentric Detour", George Sessions summarizes the historical development of how humans came to view nature through an anthropocentric lens.
Table of Contents
First Along the River by Benjamin Kline
Biblical Justifications for Dominating Nature
Seeking New Land
Rational Nature of the New World
Social and Political Thought in the 18th Century
Ecocentrism and the Anthropocentric Detour by George Sessions
Ecocentrism and Primal Cultures
Rise of the Anthropocentric Modern World
Spinoza's Pantheistic Metaphysics and the Romantic Movement
Nineteen and Early-Twentieth Century Origins of Environmentalism
Ecocentrism After World War II
Ecocentrism versus Anthropocentric Survival Environmentalism
Rise of the Long-range Deep Ecology Movement
From the Paper "As Christianity spread across Europe, however, this reverence for nature gave way to a desire to exploit nature. By the Middle Ages, scientific and technological changes allowed people to farm inhospitable land and otherwise "tame" nature. A bevy of technology ? grain mills, harnesses, wheel plows and power trains with cranks, among others ? allowed people to cultivate more crops and raise more animals. By increasing the food yield, the population tripled. By the 14th century, Europe had become a capital of trade and technology."
Tags: principles, foundation, nature, needs, human
This paper argues the concept of ecocentrism, as expressed in the philosophy of the deep ecology platform, the basic tenets of which are explained in this paper.
Abstract This paper explains that, for all of recorded history, Western cultures have operated on an implicit foundation of anthropocentrism, which assumes that human beings are the most important beings in the world. The author points out that ecocentrism, also known as biocentrism, is the exact opposite of anthropocentrism in that it sees the ecosystem itself as central. The paper relates that the first principle of the deep ecology movement, as formulated by Arne Naess and George Sessions in 1984, gives expression to the essence of ecocentrism. The author further states that the deep ecology platform is a foundation that might make it possible to save the planet, humans and most of the other still surviving species; however, none of the above will come easily to most people, accustomed to considering humans as the center of the universe and the pinnacle of all creation.
From the Paper "However, sacrifices will have to be made. One cannot drive a luxury SUV through a Garden-of-Eve like paradise - one of them has to go. The trick will be for enough people to realize it is the SUV that needs to go. Of course, the SUV is meant as a metaphor for the many excessive luxuries that so many people insist on, generating a consumerism that has sustained the multinational corporations that are devouring the resources of our planet. Thus, what needs to happen is a total shift in what we value."
Abstract Michael Smith's article in question falls within the category of a critique of anthropocentrism. This paper will analyse the concept of 'egalitarianism' and the general problems with 'ethical reasoning'. It will be argued that while his critical arguments are sound, there are problems with biocentrism and the reference to Spinoza. It will also be argued that he rejects this because this latter notion is fraught with traditional problems of metaphysics.
Abstract This essay presents opposing arguments to those presented in Mark Sagoff's article, "Zuckerman's Dilemma: A Plea for Environmental Ethics," in which Sagoff analyzes the concept of value and discusses the kinds of value that objects of environmental concern can have. The author of of this paper takes the position, instead, that man is designed to have dominion over the animals and fields.
From the Paper "Sagoff uses examples of things in nature which society wishes to preserve for various values. For example, he discusses obvious instrumental grounds, like potential medicinal reasons for preservation. He then contrasts that society may wish to preserve a ten thousand-year-old forest for its aesthetic qualities. Clearly, the very definition of aesthetics is the appreciation of beauty! If man appreciates the beauty of an object, it serves him! Lastly, Sagoff talks of moral value of objects in nature. Yes, we must preserve resources, but only for the sake of preserving human resources, not to preserve nature for its own sake, or for its value to non human beings."
This paper compares Norwegian philosopher Arme Naess' ecology philosophy called "deep ecology" with Indian author Ramachandra Guha's ecological philosophy of "anthropocentrism".
Abstract This paper explains that Arme Naess' philosophy of "deep ecology" encourages respect for the environment, not because humans depend on nature, but because nature and its inhabitants have inherent value. The author points out that Ramachandra Guha's ecological philosophy of "anthropocentrism" declares that all environmental responsibility is derived from human interests alone, which challenges this "deep ecology" philosophy. The paper concludes that Ramachandra Guha, who alleges that "shallow ecology" is sufficient for providing a satisfactory ethic of obligation and concern for the non-human world, is not rational; rather the concept of "deep ecology" needs to be extended especially toward non-human individuals, wilderness areas and across time and species.
From the Paper "Assuming characteristically anthropocentric perspectives and values is a defect, we should, instead, assume a biocentric perspective. We should certainly abandon crude conceptions of human needs that equate them with the sort of needs that are satisfied by extravagant resource use. One of the problems with shallow ecology lies in anthropocentrism, specifically the fact that they are characteristically short-term, sectional, and self-regarding. Suppose that astronomers detect a modest asteroid on collision course with Earth. The impending collision would be perfectly natural. Such periodic disruptive events are natural, though they probably destroy most of the then extant large life forms. These times of renewal provide opportunities for smaller, flexible organisms to radiate opportunistically into vacated niches, and life goes on. There is little doubt that our demise would provide comparable opportunities for development that we currently prevent. Even then, we should step aside so that evolution can continue on its majestic course."
Abstract This paper describes how free-market environmentalism works, identifying ways to restructure the way property owners are accountable for shared resources. The writer explains that its chief flaw is its inherent anthropocentrism. The writer discusses the cleavages between environmental professionals classified by Aldo Leopold as A and B cleavages, A being a means of economic gain through land's subordination (free-market environmentalism), and B exemplifying Leopold's idea of an ecological conscience that puts the importance of flora and fauna above human self-serving desires. The paper concludes that free-market environmentalism is flawed because it lacks an ecological conscience.
From the Paper "Free-market environmentalism's strength in appealing to the property owner's basic desire to maintain property value is astute, however, the theory weakens because the economy is not ecologically driven and free-market environmentalism allows unregulated property owners to make ecological decisions, which affect shared natural resources. It is unlikely that property owners with short-term economic gain in mind will consistently, or ever, make choices based upon ecological sustainability for the biotic and public health of community. Furthermore, free-market environmentalism is based upon economics, ruled by the supply and demand of natural resources; therefore, those managing the property will innately seek to ensure their investment is secure while fluctuating in market value. Plainly, it is unlikely that many property owners would be willing to take an economic loss in order to protect the biotic health of the land."
Abstract The mechanistic worldview, on the one hand, depicts nature as atomistic, passive, lifeless, and wholly devoid of purpose. Feminist critics of deep ecology's insistence that an anthropocentric worldview is the root cause of the ecological crisis agree that there are important connections between the oppression of nature and the oppression of women that the anthropocentric emphasis of deep ecology obscures. Nature itself is conceived of as feminine. The powerful metaphor of "Mother Nature" allows one to see women and nature as both nurturing and gentle as well as wild and unpredictable. The irrational forces of nature must be tamed by culture and the emotional nature of women must be constructively directed by the masculine force of rationality.
Abstract This paper presents an argument favoring the preservation of species, from a philosophical viewpoint. The position argued posits value on individual members of species in a manner that merits a moral duty to protect them.
From the Paper "According to Rolston, it is admittedly difficult to pinpoint precisely what a species is and there may be no single quintessential way to define species. Despite the complexities involved in fashioning an absolute definition of species for the purposes of this analysis, species will be defined according to the biological definition. Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. Perhaps even more complex than a definition of species is the answer to why and under what circumstances we should preserve endangered..."
Abstract This paper outlines the ethical problems with Dow Chemical Company's production of Dioxin and their inability to properly manage the waste they produce. It then outlines the reasons for a moral obligation to remedy the problem. The paper focuses its argument by taking both anthropocentric approaches and anti-anthropocentric approaches to the issue.
From the Paper "Nearly all corporations produce waste as a by-product of the service or product they provide. That waste can have detrimental effects on the surrounding environment; not only the corporation's environment but the public and private environments associated with the effects of that waste. The Dow Chemical company produces many different kinds of waste in their production of various chemical products. In her article "Dioxin Class-Status Question Will Get another Day in Court," Kathie Marchlewski discusses a specific waste product released by the Dow Chemical Company into the Tittabawassee River in Midland, Michigan. This paper will take into account the ethical considerations of releasing Dioxin into the Tittabawassee River. The scope of this essay will be divided into two main approaches to dealing with environmental ethics: anthropocentric approaches and anti-anthropocentric approaches."
Abstract The paper summarizes and critiques several different theories associated with the ethical treatment of animals. The paper focuses on the treatment of animals as it relates to hunting and trapping animals, eating animals, using animals for research, and the manner in which domestic and wild animals are treated. The paper summarizes and critiques several theories including anthropocentrism, animal liberation, strong animal rights theory, weak(er) animal rights theory, two-factor egalitarianism, biocentric egalitarianism and ecocentric views.
Outline:
Introduction
Anthropocentrism Animal Liberation
Biocentric Egalitarianism
Weak Animal Rights Theory
Strong Animal Rights Theory
Two Factor Egalitarianism
Ecocentric Views
Opinion Concerning Ethical Issues and the best Theory to Address These Issues
Conclusion
From the Paper "Finally, as it relates to the manner in which domestic and wild animals are treated, there must be standards associated with their treatment. As it relates to domestic animals there are many laws that govern their treatment and the responsibilities that owners have for their pets. As it relates to wild animals there is a definite need to have animals at zoos for the purpose of educating people. If an animal is near extinction people might have more compassion and a greater understanding of the plight of the animal if they were educated about their existence and why it needs to be preserved. Educating people may also challenge them to do what they can to preserve a particular species. As with domestic animals there are rules a regulations that govern the treatment of animals at zoos and aquariums, these regulations should be adhered to and in some cases the laws. "
Abstract This paper begins by discussing the reasons behind the endangerment of the American alligator. Next, it discusses the life history of the reptilian, focusing primarily on characteristics that make it a keystone species in its environment. It then goes on to explain the factors responsible for the recovery of the alligator, and finally, explains the animal's current status and how to best manage the species using an anthropocentric perspective.
Tags: cites, conservation, endangered, esa, keystone, management, species, threatened
Abstract In the chapter titled "Environmental Values" from the book, "Environmental Values in American Culture" by Willett Kempton, James S. Boster and Jennifer A. Hartley (1995), the authors try to find out about American's feelings and ideas about the environment. The paper shows that one of the key terms in this discussion is the word 'values'. It shows that, according to the authors, the word 'values' means rules followed by people in their relationships with themselves, other people and living things. By interviewing different people and dividing their opinions into three sections, the authors attempt to form a general idea of the environmental values of Americans.
From the Paper "The authors think that most Americans relate to the environment in three different ways. In the first section, the authors assess how Americans look at the environment from the point of view of traditional religion or other forms of spirituality. Although the Bible contains sayings that seem to encourage human beings to control the environment, the respondents do not agree. They believe that God has created the environment for all living creatures. To them, it is not right for human beings to destroy the environment, so that other living things such as certain types of animals disappear forever from the planet. In this section, it is interesting that although people can believe in the same religion, their interpretation of the Bible can be different (Kempton et al., 1995, pp. 89-91)."
Abstract In this paper the concept of environmentalism is looked at from a political point of view. Like communism, feminism, and anarchism, environmentalism was born out of people's concerns about the health of society, in this case, such concepts as resource quantity and quality. Covered in this paper are three core principles that have been determined by the course of history, three stages of growth for political application of ecological ideas, and the evolution it has undergone and how it has changed.
From the Paper "It was only relatively recently that humanity had become so concerned with the state of the environment that people began to look at the issue from a political angle. Only when decades of environmental degradation began to affect that quality of life for everyone did certain groups of people want to center their ideology around a sustainable lifestyle. These events in our history were paramount to the naissance of a new political ideology, known as environmentalism. During the last century, environmentalism evolved far beyond what the originators could have envisioned, gaining three core characteristics, increasing the amount of influence on politics, and undergoing changes that would help in creating a case for putting greater emphasis on the Earth. In the last hundred years, environmentalism has become an anti-anthropocentric, post-materialistic, and modern liberal ideology which has evolved from activism to bureaucracy to political parties and has changed its focus from isolated ecosystems to how our world is affected by people's actions."
This paper is a Lexico-Grammatical analysis of a passage from Dr. Donald L. Botten's book, "Creative Happiness" (1997), which considers the text in its social and cultural context.
Abstract This paper demonstrates that a lexico-grammatical analysis of textual content can provide some significant insights into how the author attempts to communicate concepts about the issues under discussion to the reader and how the reader manages to achieve an understanding of these ideas through various cultural and social components that make effective communication possible. The author points out that the world-view, which is shared by all members of a linguo-cultural community, allows the generation and comprehension in a subconscious insight process of metaphorical linguistic meanings. The paper relates that narrative frame, with Dr. Botten speaking directly to both potential clientele and clinicians in this segment of his book, "Creative Happiness", assumes the form of general and cordially delivered advice concerning what is required to better understand the problems associated with providing positive mental healthcare outcomes. Charts.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Review and Analysis
Social and Cultural Context of the Passage
Analysis of the Language of the Text at the Clause Level
Register and Genre
Activity and Object Focus: Processes, Participants, and Circumstances
Discursive Analysis of the Text and Its Context
Summary and Conclusion
From the Paper "By culture, it is possible for the members of a speech community to orientate themselves with respect to social, moral and political values in their empirical and mental experience. Cultural categories such as Time and Space, Good and Evil, and so forth, are conceptualized in the subconscious knowledge of standards, stereotypes, mythologies, rituals, general habits and other cultural patterns. The anthropocentric approach in linguistics is focused on the elucidation of the everyday language world-picture. From this perspective, it is assumed that every language, especially with regard to its figurative meanings, is concerned with the reflection and extension of what Weisgerber called the Weltansicht, or 'world-view'."
