Abstract This paper discusses anthrax, an acute infectious disease that came into the limelight recently due to the anthrax attacks in the United States in the weeks following the September 2001 terror attacks, causing widespread panic. The paper includes information on how the disease is caused, types of anthrax, symptoms of the disease and its treatment. The paper also presents information on the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States and examines what makes anthrax a good bioterrorism agent.
Outline
Introduction
How is Anthrax Caused?
Bacillus Anthracis
Types of Anthrax and Ways in Which it can Infect Humans
Treatment
Anthrax as a Biological Weapon
The 2001 Anthrax Attacks
From the Paper "Anthrax is caused by the bacterium 'Bacillus anthracis' that is highly lethal in its virulent form. Anthrax most commonly occurs in wild and domestic animals, but it can also occur in humans when they are exposed to infected animals, tissue from infected animals, or high concentrations of anthrax spores. Bacillus anthracis, the bacterium which causes anthrax, is rod-shaped and about 1 by 6 micrometres in size. It was the first bacterium ever to be shown to cause disease by Robert Koch in 1877. The bacteria normally rest in spore form in the soil, and can survive for decades in this state. When ingested by a plant eating animal, the bacteria starts to multiply and eventually kills the animal. They even continue to reproduce in the carcass but eventually revert back to the dormant spore state when they run out of nutrients. ("Bacillus anthracis.")"
Abstract In the wake of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, anthrax, a deadly chemical agent, began showing up in many areas of the East Coast. The nation came to fear anthrax, but was that fear justified? The paper argues that while the anthrax outbreaks caused relatively few deaths, the use of anthrax as a weapon of bioterrorism should be anticipated with fear and dread. The agent is deadly and the vaccines against it are controversial at best. The paper shows that anthrax is indeed a weapon of mass destruction if it falls into the wrong hands.
From the Paper "Perhaps the most disturbing aspect of anthrax is its longevity. The spores can lie dormant for literally years, but they can still infect a person after years of exposure to the elements. Researchers know this because of past studies conducted on the disease and the spores that cause it. For example, British researchers studied the disease and its affect on animals for about a year in an isolated Scottish bog during World War II. During their studies, they exposed sheep to various types of weapons containing anthrax spores, including bombs, bullets, and other dispersants."
Abstract This paper offers an explanation of the Anthrax disease. The paper begins by defining Anthrax as an acute disease that is caused by a bacteria known as bacillus anthracis. The paper then explains the various methods of contracting Anthrax which include cutaneous through the skin, inhalation and gastrointestinal through food or digesting the bacteria. The paper includes a number of references to reports on the issue by the center for disease control and the FBI. The paper makes reference to the recent Anthrax scares in the U.S., where a white powdery substance was sent via postal mail across the country.
From the Paper "The cutaneous form of anthrax occurs as an infection of the skin. This type of anthrax is caused by touching animals or animal products with an anthrax infection. The cutaneous form of anthrax is the least serious form of anthrax. The inhaled version of anthrax occurs when a person inhales anthrax spores that are present in infected animal products or in soil that has been exposed to infected animals. The inhaled version of anthrax is the most serious form of the disease. The gastrointestinal version of anthrax occurs by eating undercooked meat from animals with anthrax. This is the rarest form of anthrax that people can contract."
Abstract This paper discusses the threat posed by anthrax as a biological weapon. The paper describes the use and manufacturing of anthrax as a biological weapon. The paper examines the physical properties of anthrax and describes the effects it has on human beings and animals. The available treatment for an anthrax infection is presented in the paper.
From the Paper "The scientific name of anthrax, bacillus anthracis, is derived from anthrakis, the Greek word for coal. The reason for this is that the disease caused by the substance is associated with black, lesions that look like coal in some cases. The cellular appearance of anthrax can be identified with fair certainty by experienced microbiologists. The problem is however that few of these professionals not working in the veterinary community have had the opportunity to either work with or see the cellular or colonial appearance of anthrax. This makes it difficult to identify and prevent the effects of the weapon in practice."
Abstract This paper analyses how anthrax is a powerful biological weapon, which when used appropriately, may result in the death of thousands or even millions of people. It examines how, in order to maximise the efficiency of a response to a bio-terrorist attack involving anthrax, wider knowledge of the microbiology and spore formation of anthrax is needed, as well as effective biological counter measures to ensure the safety of civilian populations.
Outline
Introduction Releasing Anthrax Epidemiology Symptoms
Microbiology
Pathology Methods of Control
Recommendations
Conclusion Bibliography Appendix
From the Paper "Releasing anthrax would be relative simple, a cloud of anthrax spores released in a strategic location, with a high civilian population, could kill thousands or even millions of people if released according. A lethal dosage of anthrax is considered to be 10,000 spores; 80% of a population that inhaled such a dose would die. Less than one millionth of a gram is invariably fatal within a couple of days after exposure. (REF) An anthrax aerosol would be odourless and invisible following release and would have the potential to travel many kilometres."
Tags: agent, chemical, iraq, pathogen, terrorism, terrorist, war
Abstract This paper describes the dangers of Anthrax as a weapon in chemical / biological warfare. The paper outlines different types of Anthrax and discusses the long term effects it could have in a war of bioterroism. The writer explains the different ways Anthrax enters and affects the body. The writer provides a brief history on bioterrorism and concludes the paper with assurances that bills have been passed allowing the U.S. government to spend billions on anti-bioterrorism.
From the Paper "Bioterrorism is known to have been in effect as early as 6th century B. C. when the Assyrians attempted to poison the wells of their enemies using a substance known as "rye ergot" (History of Bioterrorism, PG, 2002). Throughout the years bioterrorism has been a constant threat, as armies have been known to hurl the bodies of diseased soldiers into enemy camps. Feces and even infected fleas have been used to spread plague and malaria into enemy quarters. As early as 1763 Native Americans were given blankets and cloths that had been infected with smallpox (History of Bioterrorism, PG, 2002)."
Tags: biological, cutaneous, deadly, gastrointestinal, inhalational, terrorists, widespread, warfare, terror
This paper discusses the exposure of anthrax shortly after the September 11 attacks on the United States, as well as the United States government and the intelligence agencies possible responsibility in America's exposure to the biological pathogen.
Abstract This paper covers the role the United States government and politics played in the exportation of anthrax to Iraq before operation Desert Storm. This paper also questions the role and responsibility the United States government and crooked politics played in America's anthrax exposure, as well as covers the first cases of exposure of anthrax in the United States. This paper focuses on biological testing facilities in the United States and their mission. This paper also focuses on biological testing facilities that had existed Iraq and the United States intelligence agencies which had known of such facilities and that still approved the shipments of various pathogens to such facilities. Moreover, this paper discusses the bombing of these biological facilities from the outset of desert storm and the role this had played with the "Gulf War Syndrome".
From the Paper "Weeks after the September 11, 2001 attacks, our nation faced another act of terrorism. Anthrax was exposed to our country with intentions to kill. Not far from Mohammed Ata's hometown, in south Florida, the first cases of infection were found. Mohammed Ata was one of the hijackers in flight aboard one of the several planes involved in the September 11, 2001 attacks. Government officials believe there is a cell, somewhere in the area that is somehow linked with Al-Qeuda or Usama bin Laden. But, are government officials some how to blame for the United States exposure to anthrax?"
This paper discusses the exposure of anthrax shortly after the September 11 attacks and the United States government and the intelligence agencies' possible responsibility.
Abstract This paper explores the biological testing facilities in the United States and their mission. The author questions the responsibility of the United States government and the role politicians played in America's anthrax exposure and other past exposures of anthrax. This paper stresses the existence of biological testing facilities that had existed Iraq, which the United States intelligence agencies knew about, yet still approved the shipments of various pathogens to such facilities.
From the Paper "Salman Pak was bombed in 1991 from the outset of Desert Storm. There remains controversy that this could have been the cause of "Gulf War Syndrome". The U.S. had insisted that 150,000 soldiers be administered the anthrax vaccine. By 1993, seventy-five thousand U.S. Gulf War veterans had complained of illness. The veterans complained of fatigue, sore joints, sleeping difficulty, chronic diarrhea, memory loss, and depression. The soldiers also claimed the symptoms are related to their military service. Thousands of Gulf War veterans have participated in class action law suits."
Tags: iraq, syndrome, post, biological, collection
An examination of the terrorist attacks involving anthrax on the U.S. Postal Service and why and how the U.S. Postal Service was not prepared to deal with such an attack.
Abstract This dissertation provides an examination of the anthrax mailings to determine how the U.S. Postal Service responded and what organizational structures were in place to facilitate or impede that response. The role and importance of the U.S. Postal Service is discussed and its history and evolution is described. The examination is presented over the course of six chapters and concludes that there were significant failures on the part of the postal service to provide adequate protections for its workers while the investigation was being conducted, largely as a result of an organizational culture that placed productivity above safety considerations.
Introduction
The History and Development of the U.S. Postal Service
Modern Postal Bureaucracy
Anthrax in the Mail: Attack and Response
Values in Conflict
Conclusion
From the Paper "The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 have resulted in vastly increased scrutiny of many aspects of government functioning, as major wars and national cataclysms have done in the past. In this new environment, it is important to understand what conflicting bureaucratic values may represent the opposing perspectives of providing open access to the postal system versus protecting the system and its workers from terrorist attacks in the future? "Few aspects, perhaps," Wise says, "have received more attention than the question of whether government in general, and the federal government in particular, has the right organizational structure to meet the requirements for homeland security." Immediately following the attacks, the president made a determination that there was a glaring need for improvements in security organization; in response, he established the Office of Homeland Security by executive order on October 8, 2001, less than one month following the terrorist attacks."
Abstract This paper looks at the idea of the Anthrax immunisation problem and the philosophies of Kant and Mills along with a Utilitarian approach as to whether it is bets to inoculate or not. The paper discusses Kant along side Mills and concludes that in personal views Mills would be the best approach to take.
Abstract This paper critically examines the United States' P.A.T.R.I.O.T. Act in light of domestic terrorist attacks such as the anthrax scare and 9/11. The author contends that this legislation was passed in an environment of fear. It is further argued that such an Act would not have been passed if the nation were not in a state of panic.
From the Paper "Bioterrorism, though, was not enough to convince Americans that the Patriot Act was a necessity. Only after what soon became known as "nine-eleven" occurred would a panic stricken America be able to accept such intrusion of privacy for safety. Over 5,400 people were lost in this single tragedy. This was the single worst day-death toll that has been experienced for America since the Battle of Antietam during the Civil War. In comparison to Pearl Harbor in 1941, this attack had over twice as many deaths, and the majority of them were civilians (World). Because of this devastating attack, America as a whole felt crushed. The World Trade Centers were one of the United State's most prominent symbols of power, economic wealth, and unity with many of the world's nations. Only after this were Americans blind enough with rage, grief, and most of all fear to accept such a great invasion of privacy for safety against terrorism."
Abstract Anthrax, which is caused by a spore-forming bacterium called Bacillus anthracis, actually occurs as an acute and infectious disease, and is generally found in animals, both wild and domestic. This paper examines how the disease spreads, its different forms, its symptoms and its prevention. In particular, it looks at how it is used as part of bioterrorism.
From the Paper "Anthrax is termed a zoonotic disease (meaning that it is acquired by people from animals) (Brachman & Friedlander, 1994). The earliest accounts of humans getting this disease are thought to be caused by anthrax dating from the Fifth Egyptian Plague, which was 3500 years ago (Brachman & Friedlander, 1994). During the Middle Ages, anthrax, which was then called "The Black Bane," actually killed very large numbers of people and animals over in Europe. At that time, there was no understanding of the disease, and there was no vaccine (Brachman & Friedlander, 1994). Much like the bubonic plague, people simply did not seem to understand how the disease worked or how they should prevent it."
Abstract This paper deals with the disease anthrax and the bacterium that causes it. Included is information on history, tests, where it is found, how and who contracts it, symptoms, treatments, and uses as a biological weapon.
From the Paper "Since the events of September 11 shocked our nation we have become increasingly concerned with the possibility of further terrorist attacks. President Bush has already added a new member to his cabinet; Tom Ridge now serves as the Homeland Defense Secretary. Words such as anthrax and biological warfare, which are not usually seen unless you look for them, can now be found almost every time you turn on the television, pick up the newspaper or log-on to the internet. If you had taken a survey of Americans three months ago asking them "What is anthrax"? the most common response next to "I don"t know? would probably have been "Hey, isn"t that a rock band?? Now it can almost be considered a household word. Since September 25th several people in the United States have become infected with a disease called anthrax, some have even died, because of exposure to letters containing a white powder from an, as of yet, unknown mailer. When used as a biological weapon, anthrax posses a serious threat to people and the environment and therefore should not be used as such."
Abstract The writer discusses the real threat of biological terror attacks against the United States against the background of September 11th. The paper explores various kinds of weapons, including anthrax, the risks they pose and what can be done to prevent them being used against America.
From the Paper "Both common sense and our government tell us that our country is still at grave risk for both further physical attacks and further incidents of biological terrorist attacks. The fact is that under the right circumstances, a variety of biological weapons can be transported and released. (Atlas, 1999) Because of the wide variety of materials and methods of distribution that could be used, it will take considerable effort to protect us even partially from bioterrist attacks, so may not be possible to protect us completely. However, our government can examine the issues, consider the risks and plan protective actions."
A discussion of the development of automated bio-terrorism identification equipment to detect and provide warning of the presence of biological agents in the case of biological wafare.
Abstract The paper examines how the Department of Defense has started work on a biological agent detection and identification program as part of efforts to develop a national early warning system for urban areas pertaining to biological warfare. It also describes the Biological Defense Homeland Security Support Program to achieve early detection and characterization of a biological-related incident in an urban area in order to reduce casualties, minimize disruption to infrastructures and support consequence management efforts. It looks at how the Postal Service has also set into motion work toward the development of bio-terrorism identification equipment due to anthrax scares and the work of biotechnology companies in the development of pulmonary drug delivery in order to combat air-borne bio-terrorist threats .
From the Paper "Another developer of bio-terrorism identification equipment is NanoVia, LP, an innovative leader in the development of next generation high-speed microvia drilling technology. The company recently announced that it intends to further develop its patented drilling process for pulmonary drug delivery in order to combat air-borne bio-terrorist threats (prweb.com). While currently applicable for conditions such as diabetes, multiple sclerosis, fast-moving allergic reactions, seizures and cardiovascular conditions, NanoVia, LP believes that inhaled physical threats, such as Anthrax, can also be combated with this technology (prweb.com)."
