Abstract
The paper discusses the normal anatomy and physiology of the heart with specific emphasis on the aortic valve and the anatomy and physiology and pathophysiology of aortic stenosis. A detailed description is given of the structure of the heart. The paper also addresses the anesthetic management of patients with aortic stenosis. This paper includes a figure.

Outline:
Introduction
Normal Anatomy and Physiology of the Heart
Anatomy, Physiology and Pathophysiology of Aortic Stenosis
Anesthetic Management in Patients with Aortic Stenosis
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Valve damage such as 'aortic stenosis' is problematic and relates to the 'opening' and 'closing' of the valve and when the valve fails to open all the way, less blood is moved through to the next heart chamber and when the valve fails to close tightly blood may potentially leak backwards. This results in the heart having to work much harder to pump the same amount of blood to the body. When there is a problem with the valves opening this is referred to as 'stenosis' of the valve and occurs because the valve has become hard or stiff due to calcium deposits or even scarring resulting in the valve being difficult to open. Ultimately the blood is forced to flow through an opening that it much smaller than it should be and less blood manages to pass through the valve into the next chamber of the heart."

Tags:anesthesia, heart, disease, valves, ventricles

Abstract
This paper discusses the basic pharmacology of anesthetic agents. Commonly-used anesthetics are examined briefly in the paper. The paper focuses on the use of volatile anesthetics that enter the circulation via the lungs. The paper contends that, although the general mechanism of action is similar among all anesthetics, one may be indicated for a particular case, but not another. Considerations for use should include subject medical history and presentation, length and depth of desired sedation, and potential side effects.

From the Paper
"A variety of anesthetic techniques are available in clinical practice today for different surgical situations. A trained anesthetist decides the most appropriate method for each case and has the necessary skills to use the technique of choice. Volatile anesthetic agents are commonly used and have an important safety feature in that agents that enter the circulation via the lungs may leave by the same route. Thus, the concentration of anesthetic at the brain can be rapidly reduced as long as the patient is breathing adequately. General anesthetics are used to produce unconsciousness during surgery. Unlike local anesthetics that are used in dentistry and minor surgery, general anesthetics circulate throughout the body, which results in a stronger action on the nervous system and a greater potential for side effects."

Tags:general, local, volatile

Abstract
This paper deals largely with the social implications of the medical industry's marketing of Twilight Sleep (an obstetric anesthetic) to a specific demographic of women. The period of history in the paper spans from 1914-1930. The paper discusses the case of a mother who died shortly after delivering her fifth child while on the drug. The paper has no works cited page but contains MLA style footnotes.

From the Paper
"Amid the hazy hours of a warm August night in 1915, Brooklyn's Francis X. Carmody of 1,114 Ocean Avenue passed away in her Long Island College Hospital bed after giving birth to her fifth child. In an article published the following week after her demise, The New York Times wrote that her death resulted from "an unexpected hemorrhage during labor." What attracted the press to Carmody's story was not the way she died, or even the suddenness to her death, but rather the circumstances surrounding it."

Tags:american history, consumer culture, women's studies, drugs pharmaceuticals morphine

Abstract
This paper explains that some surgeons have suggested that cardio pulmonary bypass surgery in and of itself activates an inflammatory response that results in a stress reaction. The author points out that the role of the anesthesiologist in cardiac surgery is, as much as possible, to reduce the stress response that results form cardiac surgery. The paper relates that the stress response can be mitigated by a variety of anesthetic techniques, including use of opioids and epidural anesthesia.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Synopsis
Stages of Anesthesia for Cardiac Patients
Implications for Practice

From the Paper
"The job of an anesthesiologist during a CBS procedure includes minimizing the autoimmune and stress response. Studies have shown that "greater fear or distress prior to surgery" is typically associated with slower and more complex and complicated post-operative recovery (Glaser, et. al, 1998). Stress response in fact delays healings. The body naturally perceives surgery as a "threatening" experience, and thus a variety of stress factors are involved in the surgical process (Glaser, et. al, 1998). Among these stress concerns include worries related to survival and recovery, as well as separation from family (Glaser, et. al, 1998); these factors are especially prevalent among cardiovascular patients, who face at bets long postoperative periods and "delicate" recovery prognosis."

Tags:inflammatory, anesthesiologist, reduction, psychological, opiods

Abstract
The paper describes plantar fasciitis, an inflammation of the fascia on the bottom of the feet, and its signs, symptoms and treatments. The paper focuses on the plantar fasciotomy endoscopic procedure which is done under a local anesthetic and discusses its risks, aftercare and recovery. The paper also provides some statistics on heel pain and this form of treatment.

Outline:
Abstract
Signs and Symptoms
Treatments
Risks
Prognosis
Statistics
Summary

From the Paper
"Fascia is thin connective tissue that covers or separates muscles and internal organs of the body. It varies in its thickness, density, elasticity, and composition, and is very different from ligaments and tendons. The fascia can be injured either through a constant strain or through a trauma. Fasciitis happens when the fascia becomes inflamed. The most common situation for which a Fasciotomy is performed is plantar fasciitis, which is an inflammation of the fascia on the bottom of the feet that is sometimes called a heel spur or stone bruises (Fasciotomy, 2007).
"Plantar fasciitis is often caused by long periods on one's feet, being overweight, or wearing shoes that do not offer proper support of the foot. Teachers, mail carriers, runners, and others who make extensive use of their feet are more likely to suffer from this condition. People that are more likely to need a Fasciotomy include the following: athletes who have sustained one or more serious contact injuries, people who spend very long periods of time on their feet, people with who have been severely burned, people who are overweight and people who are victims of a snakebite. Studies have shown that males have a slightly higher risk of having to undergo a Fasciotomy (Fasciotomy, 2007)."

Tags:anesthetic, heel, foot, fascia

Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that the roots of modern anesthetics may be traced back to the 19th century, with the successful isolation of cocaine from coca leaves. The writer points out that one type of amino amide that is far less toxic than cocaine is bupivacaine, which was eventually synthesized in 1963. The writer maintains that the long-lasting anesthetic effects provided by bupivacaine have been shown to cause cardiovascular toxicity at relatively low serum levels that are approximately the same as levels that cause toxicity in the central nervous system. The writer then discusses issues related to toxicity caused by the bupivacaine including reactions, prevention and resuscitation techniques. The writer concludes that the research supports possible clinical interventions using lipid infusion in the treatment of cardiac toxicity due to exposure to bupivacaine.

Outline:
The Development and Use of Bupivacaine
Toxic Reactions Associated with Bupivacaine
Case Studies Detailing Toxicity Associated with Bupivacaine
The Prevention of Bupivacaine-induced Toxicity
Bupivacaine and Positive Cardiovascular Effects?
Resuscitation Techniques Following Bupivacaine Intoxication
Lipid Infusion as Resuscitation for Bupivacaine Toxicity

From the Paper
"Overall, bupivacaine is considered to be among anesthetic agents that are more likely to cause states of cardiotoxicity. In animal studies, bupivacaine was demonstrated to be four to sixteen times more likely to cause cadiovacular toxicity than lidocaine. However, bupivacaine will continue to remain as a primary local anesthetic agent used by clinicians, which indicates a need for knowledge and awareness as to how to most effectively treat toxicity when it arises."
"Clinicians must adhere to proper dosages of anesthetics and correct sites of administration in order to reduce chances of the occurrence of toxicity. More recently, research has yielded the development of anesthetic agents that have reduced toxicity in comparison to bupivacaine."

Tags:lipid, infusion, anesthetics, reactions

Abstract
This paper explains that the majority of research indicates that anesthetic choice has little impact on the outcome of surgery for patients undergoing TURP and related procedures. The author points out that physicians should instead take into consideration the likelihood for increased overall morbidity and mortality rates in patients due to the nature of the surgery and increased likelihood that patients are coming into a procedure with increased complications prior to surgery. The paper states that general and spinal anesthesia both carry risks, and both carry adverse side effects; which side effects a patient is best equipped to handle should be the determining factor for the majority of patients undergoing TURP.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Literature Review
Implications to Practice

From the Paper
"There is research indicating that adverse effects may result from anesthetic choice during prostatectomy, or at least evidence indicating that in general this procedure is more risky and likely to result in a greater likelihood for poor outcome. The Department of Urology at Freeman Hospital in Newcastle, UK conducted a study that examined complications and morbidity resulting from prostatectomy in 1400 men. The patients were examined for a period of 8 months, with patients undergoing TURP examined from 12 separate institutions. Data was collected related to "factors potentially affecting mortality and morbidity" which included the American Society of Anesthesiologists co-
morbidity scores. Complications post-surgery included 8% of patients developing sepsis, with a large percentage of patients having a "significantly increased rate of deaths and complications" and emergent situations requiring re-admission to the hospital . The study concluded that due to the increased likelihood of complications, which were seen across population groups of varying ages, it is essential that care providers further examine potential increased causes for morbidity rates after prostatectomy. The increased likelihood of complications was not directly tied to anesthetic technique, but this possibility was also not ruled out."

Tags:risks, complications, age, education, side-effects

Abstract
The history of surgery involves the discovery and evolution of medical technology, concepts, and systems, which have their origins dating back thousands of years. This paper shows that while the early considerations of supernatural methods of healing were the standard for the time, work by Hippocrates, Galen, Louis Pasteur, and Joseph Lister helped transform medicine into an implementable science. The course of surgical history involved little change for many centuries, but with the industrial revolutions following the Renaissance, significant developments in aseptic technique for surgical sterility, methods of anesthetic administration, the instruments and computerized technology used in surgery, and the surgical methods themselves have provided modern day patients with innovative systems of surgical treatments that optimize safety and comfort. The paper comments that considering how far medicine and surgical advancements have come, it is unfathomable what the future of surgery holds in store for us.

From the Paper
"In 1867, Joseph Lister, a medical doctor and professor of surgery at Edinburgh in London, determined that methods of scrupulous cleanliness should be followed during a surgical procedure. He employed the use of carbolic or phenic acid in a dressing to destroy the "floating particles" discovered by Pasteur. Carbolic acid is a volatile organic compound with destructive properties, capable of eliminating lower microbes, which, at the time, was the most powerful form of antiseptic known. Previous to the use of antiseptics it was thought that the inflammatory influences on tissue, coupled with blood decomposition at the site, were the factors motivating tissue decomposition. Thus, eliminating bacteria at the wound or surgical site through the use of antiseptics proved to rule out both the air-exposure theory and the inflammatory tissue consideration."

Tags:asepsis, Renaissance, carbolic, acid

Abstract
This paper explains that most people know Dr. Sigmund Freud as the ?father of psychiatry? and associate him with the famous ?Oedipus Complex?, but very few know that, before making his discoveries about the workings of the human mind and personality, he was a physical scientist, who first used cocaine as an anesthetic during eye surgery. The author points out that Freud, believing one?s gender played a very large role in the development of one?s personality and mind, was the first physician to treat mentally and emotionally disturbed patients humanely. The paper states that, although Freud?s methodology seems to have gone out of style, Freud?s granddaughter, also a psychiatrist, believes that the core of Freud's thinking reflects, in many ways, pioneering postmodern insights compatible with current cognitive and constructivist ideas and neurophysiological brain research.

Table of Contents
Early Life
From Fear to Modernity
Same Stuff, Different Day
A Man for our Times?
Time?s Up

From the Paper
"There were other components to his belief system, of course, often connected to boys' fears concerning their private parts. Girls were supposed to envy their brothers and fathers, something Freud connected to their differing gender-specific physical equipment, but which "looking back at how badly society in Victorian times oppressed women" might well have been a rational reaction on the part of those girls and women. They saw that they could not achieve what men did. Freud attributed that to anatomy; these days, we would attribute it to the expectations of society."

Tags:women, cocaine, development, humane, compatible

Abstract
Cocaine is an effective topical anesthetic and it provides significant blood flow stimulation. Cocaine hydrochloride is a fine white powder derived from the leaves of the plant Erythroxylon coca. "Coca" comes from the Aymara word "khoka" meaning "the tree". The Spaniard's adopted the practice of chewing coca leaves after conquering Peru in the 16th century. There are many different nations that continue to use coca and cocaine actively within the indigenous medical cultures. Cocaine provides benefit to the body and the spirit.