Abstract
This paper analyzes the influence of Islamic influence on West Africa's ancient empires, like the Songhay empire under the Askiya Dynasty.
The author also provides a background study on two other empires, the Mali and Ghana empires, analyzing how they stood to prosper by the conquest by the leaders of the Songhay empire. Furthermore, the paper discusses how the leaders of the Askiya Dynasty sought a pure, institutionalized form of Islam and practice, in combination with the traditional religions. The paper also talks of how they used this opportunity to invest in education, resulting in the creation of an elite intelligentsia that produced extensive literary and cultural works.

From the Paper
"As merchants crossed the desert into black Africa, they not only brought goods but their Islamic customs and traditions, often bringing Muslim clerics in their caravans, who were eager to settle in these new lands and spread the teachings of Islam. These teachings, would at first, appeal to only a small sect of the population, namely the aristocracy. Prior to the rise of the Songhay empire, Islam was practiced only by royalty and scholars during the Mansa Dynasty, while the population remained largely pagan. It was by the mid-eleventh century that the kings of Mali started becoming Islamized and so began the era of Islam as a royal religion. In a wonderful narrative, Al-Bakri describes how the Malian king became Islamized and came to be known as al-Musulmani. This account underscores the important role clerics played in the Islamization of West Africa during Mali's reign. According to Al-Bakri's account, the Malian king sought help from a Muslim divine in a time of terrible drought and famine. This divine makes the king promise to convert to Islam before he will pray for him."

Tags:religion, ancient civilizations

Abstract
This paper argues that, as the reason for battling evolved from survival to expansion, ancient empires had to fight wars of conquest to
continue to grow or they would stagnate and eventually collapse. Next, the author examines the warfare of prehistoric and early man and the military might of Cyrus, the Great and Alexander, the Great and the modern warfare after the Cold War. The paper concludes that the reasons for warfare remain the same throughout history even though there have been substantive changes in modern nationhood. The paper includes footnotes.

From the Paper
"Revenge did play a part in the early conflicts, albeit less drastically as was once thought. Even cases that might seem like petty retribution often bore some underlying concern - in the days before agriculture and surplus foodstuffs, territorial boundaries held a far greater significance for these societies than today. Attempts to attribute these wars to the lack of a modern ethical code are meaningless at a time when fear and hunger were inevitable and absolute. As societies approached the dawn of civilization, though, these seemingly clear-cut explanations would be supplanted by less tangible honor killings."

Tags:revenge, malthusian growth, greco-persian wars, counter-insurgency

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses that in Ancient Greece, Hellenistic Greece, Etruscan Italy, and within the Roman Empire, the quest for the ideal changes, but what remains the same of the fact that this cultural quest--whatever version--is reflected in the art that characterizes each period for future generations.

From the Paper
"Although no two cultures are the same it is possible that some may share the same ideals. Ideals are relative and manifest themselves differently with every new generation. In the societies of Ancient Greece, Hellenistic Greece, Etruscan Italy and the Roman Empire the quest for the ideal was ongoing and never-ending. For the Ancient Greeks perfection was the goal personified by the Doryphoros of Polykleitos for their society culture and art. For the Hellenistic Greeks the ideal ..."

Tags:Ancient Greece, Hellenistic Greece, Etruscan Italy, Roman Empire, Art, Classical Art, contrapposto, Doryphoros of Polykleitos, Commodus as Herclues, Laocoon and His Sons

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the ways in which warfare has had a significant effect upon the growth and development of the ancient world. It shows how by tracing the history of warfare from prehistoric times up until the late Roman Empire, it is apparent that war has had a powerful effect on philosophy politics history and rhetoric.

From the Paper
"Warfare was a powerful force in the ancient world, effecting both social development and change. Warfare has had a supreme effect on civilizations back to the beginning of recorded history and even into the prehistoric human era. One scholar on the subject points out that war is "both a law of nature and a human invention" (Garlan 23). In other words, warfare is an inescapable part of what it means to be human and yet the ways in which warfare effects social development can change from society to society. The purpose of this paper is to examine the ways in which warfare has had a significant effect upon the growth and development of the ancient world. "

Tags:war, ancient, civilizations

Abstract
This paper gives an in-depth examination of the Roman communities of the ancient Near East, Palmyra, Dura-Europos and Hatra, considering their differences regarding economy, society and religious culture. The paper describes each community and its importance to this region at length, beginning with Palmyra. Palmyra is described as maintaining a distict Graeco-Roman and Oriental culture, despite being fully colonized by Rome. Next, the paper elaborates on Dura-Europos, which is seen as the center of Greek influence upon the villages of the middle Euphrates. Finally, the paper details life in Hatra, which was a vassal kingdom under the influence of the Parthians. As such, its society and culture were all connected with the and all other aspects, as connected with the Parthian empire, despite Roman rule. Quotes from ancient historians and their texts are interspersed throughout the paper. The paper concludes by stating that when examining the society, economy and religious culture of Palmyra, Dura-Europos and Hatra, a distinctive character appears that fits in with their overall identity, despite their comparatively close geographical position to one another.

From the Paper
"Palmyra was one of the largest towns in the Near East, during the period of Roman contact. It has been suggested that the town sprang up because of a sudden urbanisation of nomads for economic benefits, but it must be stressed that this can only be a theory for now and is not proven. Pliny the Elder, misleadingly, suggests that Palmyra was politically based between the Roman and Parthian empires. Actually, even though Palmyra does have a unique status, it is firmly under Roman influence. This can be shown from the inscription of the tax law that bears the name of the city as 'Hadriana Tadmor', along with other references to Roman governors and Germanicus Caesar. Palmyra even became a colonia, but this did not mean the introduction of Latin to the town, for we find the use of Latin to entirely disappear from this period."

Tags:Roman Empire, Near East, Graeco-Roman, Parthian Empire

Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that warfare in ancient times is understood by records of civilizations, which often exaggerate their wins and accomplishments for purposes of bolstering an ancient civilization's perception of their king or leader. The writer discusses that as time passes, and more information is studied and compared against the still emerging body of archeological data, it is possible to better understand the state of warfare in ancient civilizations. The extent to which warfare was waged in ancient times continues to be debated, but the historical and archeological evidence has begun to reveal that when war did occur, it was on a scale that often times completely altered or transformed the civilization in which it occurred. The writer maintains that it would be fair to say that mankind's propensity for waging war is one that can be traced to the ancient tribes of every civilization on earth. It might also be surmised, especially given the role of religious deities and pagan beliefs, that the impetus to make war arose out of superstition as much as it did out of the need to offset nature with resources.

Outline:
Introduction
Ancient Egypt
The Mesoamerica Ancient Civilizations
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Even with this information, there remain volumes of unanswered questions, the answers to which can only be speculated about at this time. While the written and archeological data of some civilizations, such as the Egyptians, have left us with a wealth of information, it still must be translated and taken into consideration as to the goals the ancients themselves had in the writings. As has been previously noted here, the ancient Egyptians had a tendency to exaggerate war wins for the benefit of the powerful.
"An examination of a ancient civilizations where the writings and archeological data are not as voluminous as ancient Egypt or Rome, means that much of what is concluded form the artifacts is based on historians' and archeologists' experiences with other ancient civilizations, like Egypt, Greece, and Rome."

Tags:Egyptians, warring, nation, empire, ruler

Abstract
This paper explains that the development of irrigation for agriculture required substantial centralized control by the society, which resulted in the development of a managerial state with a political power base and a prevailing religion. These hydraulic societies, the author reports, existed along the river valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Hebrews, China, India and Iran during the years between 1,500 and 330 B. C. E. The paper reviews the history of the hydraulic societies of Mesopotamia to year 1,500 B.C.E., Egypt from 3,000 to 900, the ancient Hebrews in Canaan to 800, China from 2,000 to 221, India from 2,000 to 200 and Iran to 330 (all dates are B.C.E.).

Table of Contents:
The Rise of Hydraulic Civilization
Mesopotamia: to 1500 B. C. E.
Egypt: 3000-900 B. C. E.
Hebrews: 800 B. C. E.
China: 2000-221 B. C. E.
India: 2000-200 B. C. E.
Iran: to 330 B. C. E.

From the Paper
"The Nile River presented Egypt with a relatively reliable resource of irrigation, transportation, and commerce; however, Egypt required laborers. Canaan, conversely, was primarily irrigated by precipitation and that was not labor intensive with regard to creating a society. Many of the problems that occurred were related to droughts that took place periodically. Unlike the nations that emerged in areas that had a reliable source of water, the ancient Hebrews usually existed as nomads in the wilderness and much like the present day Bedouins."

Tags:cities government nile, rice cultivation, achemenian empire

Abstract
The paper shows that ancient Roman architects implemented the elements of space, symmetry and construction with exceptional innovative skill. Although their most notable achievements, the arch and vault construction, was first conceived by the Etruscans and had a profound influence on Roman architectural style and design, the paper shows that the innovations made by the Romans were still tremendously substantial and distinct.

From the Paper
"Another revolution can be seen in the Roman network of roads. The Romans were the first civilization to make well-designed roads. Around the time of Augustus the major roads were constructed to keep the incredibly large empire linked to avoid collapse. The Romans contributed a number of things to the basic idea of roads, such as archways, city streets, and arch bridges. This greatly increased the ability to build because of the way the roads were laid out. The roads allowed the Roman Empire to expand Rome in every direction; hence the saying "All roads lead to Rome". In fact, they were so abundant and well constructed that many of them still exist today as memorable landmarks today."

Tags:caesar, history, rome, empire, cavea

Abstract
This paper presents a detailed discussion about the various causes of the rise and fall of empires in ancient times. The writer focuses the discussion on the rise and fall of Rome as well as other ancient civilizations that have been witnessed. The writer explains the importance of understanding the history of these ancient civilizations in order to learn from the mistakes.

From the Paper
"Historians have often pondered the rise and fall of ancient civilizations around the world. Heated debates about what factors contributed to their rise and their decline and fall have taken place in many settings. The ancient civilizations have been studied for several reasons. They can point mankind in the direction of what not to do in the future and they can provide mankind with a blueprint for success as long as the mistakes are avoided. The factors that contributed to the rise and fall of ancient civilizations are numerous but the main focus was on politics, and the desire and abuse of power."

Tags:history, roman, civilization, politics, religion, military

Abstract
This paper gives a history of how Athens, originally looking for a united front against the invading Persian armies during the Persian Wars in antiquity, grew from an influential city-state to one of the world's first empires, stretching its power base across the entire Aegean sea. The paper begins by discussing how the Delian League, the pretext to what would become the Athenian Empire, came into being as a direct way to combat the invading Persians. The alliance was created out of necessity, as a united Greek front would be the only way to repel the massive Persian army under King Xerxes. A brief history of the Persian Wars is given, with Persia's invasion of Northern Greece and the burning of the Acropolis in Athens, but eventually their defeat at the hands of the Athenian general Cimon at the mouth of the Eurymedon River. After Persia was defeated and their troops driven back to Asia, Athens was firmly set as the predominant military and economic leader of all of Greece. The Delian League that was organized to fight against the Persians soon evolved into an Athenian Empire, with Athens collecting tribute and taxes from other city-states in exchange for protection and economic stability. Athens used their power to create a more safe and secure Greece, but was eventually corrupted by greedy politicians who abused other Greek city-states to the point of war. The second half of the paper goes into detail over how Athens was justified to create an empire, as it brought about prosperity for all involved. This includes the destruction of piracy and the opening up with trade routes to eastern Turkey. Ancient sources are heavily quoted to reinforce the argument that having a single dominant polis inevitably stabilized the once troubled area of Ancient Greece. This section also deals with Athens feeling morally obligated to spread their particular form of democracy to all of the other city-states, and their desire to see Sparta have their power limited. This ancient Cold War would eventually boil over into the Peloponnesian War, and the result ended in a weakened Greece that would not rise to prosperity again until Alexander The Great unified Greece.

From the Paper
"During the expansion of Athenian power, an economic concept developed that allowed a particular polis to form an economic alliance with a fellow Delian League member. This agreement would allow the two states to work together in transporting particular goods through their territories to a marketplace where the goods would be sold, and the profit generated from the selling of the goods would be evenly distributed between the two Greek states. Such an example of this economic unity can be seen in agreement between Athens and the polis of Phaselis, which held joint control over certain economic endeavors and even adopted the same coinage for a short span of history. Athens also made it clear that if the city-states were to live under the protection of Athens, then the economic system should be standardized."

Tags:xerxes, Thucydides, Samos