Abstract This paper shows the important role that Buddhism and Confucianism played in the development of printing. It then shows the important role that printing played in the development and history of these two religions. The paper particularly discusses the history of printing from the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Sung Dynasty in AncientChina.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Very Beginning of Printing - Tang Dynasty (618-906)
Reasons why Printing was Invented - Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty
The Diamond Sutra
Buddhist and Confucian Books Printed in the Sung Dynasty
Importance of Printing to Buddhism and Confucianism
Commercial Uses for Printing
Conclusion
From the Paper "As has been shown above, the Ancient Chinese were the first to develop printing, during the Tang Dynasty and the Sung Dynasty. The main reason they did this was because printing was needed to produce and distribute more religious texts. In particular, Buddhist texts were the reason why early printing was developed. Printing then made possible the production of the first complete Buddhist canon. So, it must have been very important in spreading and developing Buddhism in China. Although printing was soon used for commercial applications, it continued to be important for religious literature. During the Sung Dynasty, it was used to produce Confucian books. Thanks to the invention of printing, a fair amount of early religious works still exist today."
Abstract K.C. Chang's book, "Art Myth and Ritual" is an in-depth study and analysis of the development of political power in AncientChina through the foundations of myth, art, and architecture. Through a combination of archaeology, classical studies and anthropology, Chang sets out the specific criteria for the rise of political authority in the Ancient Chinese world and places them in the context of the mythological, artistic and ritualistic realities of the tradition itself.
Abstract This paper examines the works of Confucius, primarily his "Analects", with respect to his belief about the structure of China's past. This is supported through references to the work, "Mencius".
Abstract This paper describes some of the many technological advancements that took place in China prior to the fourteenth century under the Shang and Chou dynasties. The paper relates that under Chinese Shang rule, bronze metallurgy was developed that then evolved into the development of blast furnaces and advanced iron-casting capabilities. The paper also discusses the development of a distinctive writing system and examines China's contributions to the lives of Europeans. This included the glazed pottery known as china or porcelain as well as other inventions of the compass, paper, gun powder, natural gas, mechanical clocks and row planting.
From the Paper "The era of the Shang and Chou dynasties represent the formative years of Chinese history. Prior to this period, China was politically unified, yet comparable to India before its unification by the Mauryan Dynasty. This was the time when a majority of China's cultural traditions that exist today materialized. For many centuries, the country of China was in an isolated state away from other civilization, seas, deserts, and mountains. This helps to explain the originality and uniqueness of the Chinese culture. China's transition from Neolithic culture to civilization was complete with the establishment of Shang rule over most of North China in addition to the first written texts ("Notes on China")."
Abstract Although both have present-day renown as ancient apostles of the virtuous life, in truth, the Chinese philosopher, Confucius, and the Greek philosopher, Aristotle, cannot be strictly and coherently contrasted in their points of view on virtue in a traditional sense of comparison. This paper explains that both philosophers have such substantially different definitions of what "virtue" may be defined, as within their respective historical, political, and societal circumstances, one cannot elide "virtue" within the same definitional framework of ancientChina and ancient Greece. It shows how both philosophers conceptualized the notion of what constitutes virtue in completely different ways. For Confucius, virtue was a code of conduct, a law or rule of life that ought to be obeyed to create a more harmonious and perfect society. For Aristotle, virtue was a philosophical ideal that attempted to provide human beings with a definition that enabled them to conceive of their lives in a more philosophically efficacious way.
From the Paper "The different definitions of virtue between Confucius and Aristotle arise not simply because of difference of temperament or even translation, but of what both saw as their roles as thinkers. Confucius was primarily preoccupied with improving government and society. He was convinced that the problem with his current government and the current state of Chinese society was what he defined as a lacking of virtue or a lack of obedience to the rule of what was good. A truly good public servant, for instance, ?who on confronting danger is prepared to lay down his life, who on confronting gain concentrates on what is right, who when sacrificing concentrates on reverence, who when mourning concentrates on grief should definitely be all right,? as opposed to a self-interested or non-virtuous public servant, only interested in self-gratification. (19:1, Analects) The absence of good public servants in China had led to an absence of good governance."
This paper examines the rich history, economy and culture of China as depicted in John Bryan Starr's "Understanding China: A Guide to China's Economy, History and Political Structure."
Abstract This paper reviews "Understanding China: A Guide to China's Economy, History and Political Structure" by John Bryan Starr. This paper discusses China's ancient culture and its emergence as one of the foremost powers in the modern world. This paper focuses on China's recent admission to the World Trade Organization and as well as its economy which is set to become the largest in the world within the next few years. The writer of this paper examines China's political history and contends that in spite of the country's numerous transformations, the structure of the government is today fundamentally identical with what it was under the later imperial dynasties. Today, there is no emperor at the top, but instead a small committee of the leading members of various political parties who hold much the same position. Although there had been significant changes in China's economy, few political changes transpired. The communists still hold a monopoly of power and although its economic policies scarcely seem to be communist anymore, it does not intend to relax its political grip.
From the Paper "Starr contends that China remains one of the most self-contained and hence inscrutable countries in the world. It has an ancient culture of major historical importance, and has been emerging as one of the foremost powers of the modern world. It is the third largest country in the world and certainly the most populous, with about one-fifth of the world's total population. Modern communications make it as easy to reach Beijing from London or New York as it is to get to Singapore or Nairobi. Yet China remains little known and poorly understood; few foreigners learn its language or study its history and culture. Although foreign trade and tourism have increased dramatically in the last decade, they are only very slowly leading to any changes in foreign perceptions of China."
Abstract This is a brief essay on filial piety in three ancient societies: China, Babylon and Greece. Filial piety is the civil act of showing respect towards elders and parents by children. The essay touches on the teachings of Confucius and Hammurabi.
From the Paper "In Ancient China, parents were expected to be very respected and honored by their children. A very famous Chinese scholar, named Confucius believed, and taught, that children were to serve and nourish their parents when they were alive, and sacrifice to them when they died. Children were expected to lead a good, moral life and to be a credit to their parents, and never dishonor or disgrace them. Confucius also said that China could become a civil and organized society if people respected the five basic relationships in life between; ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. Confucius also stressed filial piety. Young girls and women were also expected to "cow tow" in Ancient China. Cow towing was a series of bows in the presence of a superior, male, or elder, that would show respect."
Abstract This paper begins by discussing how the expanding Roman Empire clashed with the Greeks in ancient times, with the result being war. It then looks at the consequences of contact between Rome and barbarians in general; how the Empire considered itself superior and the ramifications this had. The paper then discusses the contact between Christians and Muslims during the Crusades and then examines the relationship between Jews and the new religion, Christianity in the first century AD. It concludes with a discussion of the between Sung Dynasty of China and Mongols in AD 1279.
From the Paper "In the ancient world, the most likely occurrence when a culture or concept came into contact with another culture or a transforming concept from the outside in the areas of art, religion, and politics was, pure and simple: war, and more than this, a war of conquest that served as its own legitimation. This is what happened when Roman expansionism throughout the Mediterranean area and westward into Europe encountered the long established but, by the time of Rome's first foray into Greece in 200 BC, well past the reputation and power of Alexander the Great (Spodek 154)."
Abstract This paper discusses how China has seen a number of changes in terms of history and power over the years. It examines the changing nature of these associations and explores the relationship between history and political authority from the Shang Dynasty to the Western Han. It also shows how that, while changes occurred in the political-administrative area of China's history, many of the philosophies established were instrumental in setting a pattern for future empires.
Outline
Introduction
Political Power
The Shang Dynasty
Western and Eastern Zhou Dynasties
First Imperial Period
The Han Dynasty
Shamans and AncientChina Conclusion
From the Paper "Daoism, or the study of nature's patterns, has been in existence since the earliest Chinese eras. Historians and scholars dispute the concept that ?these ideas did not evolve with time like human beings are supposed to have, but that they sprung, full-formed, in a culture that long preceded the historical land of ?China,? even the early China that scratched their versions of these earlier ideas into the famous "oracle bones" (home.attbi.com/~piannone/o-s/ch-innerhist.html).? Feudal governments in North China, which existed during the era of the oracle bones, were different from the original daoists. During this era, fortune telling was popular among kings and queens, and their court sorcerers were educated in rumor."
Abstract This paper briefly traces the history of ancientChina. The paper talks about the key elements of the Shang Dynasty, the Chou Dynasty, the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty, and the T'ang Dynasty. Also discussed is the historical significance placed on the family, the architectural and artistic developments, military conquests, and the Golden Age under the T'ang Dynasty.
From the Paper "The Chinese, under the Chou dynasty, were known for its use of jade, bronze, horse-drawn chariots, ancestor worship, highly organized armies, and human sacrifice. Cities were organized and built enclosed by protective walls rather than allowing the people to continue to exist as loosly knit tribes. Archeological records have found one city surrounded by a wall 30 feet high, 65 feet thick, and 4 1/2 miles long. The greatness of the architectural achievements was a drastic change for a mostly agrarian society. The feudal lifestyle of 1000 BCE china were typified by military squabbles over natural resources and land. By organizing large portions of Chinese citizens inside the walls of a city, the life in daily life in china changed significantly, and changed for the first time in many centuries. Inside the walled cities lived the rulers, priests, and warriors. Similar to the medieval societal structure which evolved in Europe almost 2000 years later, merchants and craftsmen lived in houses built up against the outside walls of the cities. Farmers lived near their fields in nearby villages which afforded them the protection of the city. During the Zhou dynasty, chopsticks were invented, which changed the way people ate their food."
Abstract This paper compares and contrasts the Sui and Han dynasties of ancientChina. The paper notes their differences and similarities, placing particular emphasis on the differences in legalist thought.
From the Paper "To even a casual observer, there is much in common between the Han and Sui Dynasties of ancient China. Both represent turning points in Chinese politics and culture. The creation (and to a degree the downfall) of each entails a fierce battle between old and new, the aristocratic and the peasant, and scattered power bases versus a unified state. Each was to leave a lasting impression on those that follow, indeed many of the elements of Sui success were merely a repackaging of Han innovation. So how then do we compare the two? With so much in common, the merits of each must be found in their differences rather than their commonalities. Perhaps one of the more telling contrasts is to compare the extent to which each Dynasty integrated its cosmology into its legalist structure."
Abstract This paper explains how all ancient civilizations relied on flowing water to exist. The Egyptians relied on the Nile. To the east, the Euphrates and the Tigris created Mesopotamia. The Indus River nourished ancient Indian civilization, and the great Yellow River (Huang Ho) made the birth of Chinese civilization possible.
From the Paper "Thus all ancient culture hearths could depend on a steady source of water, which also brought nutrients to the soil and fish as a source of food. Except for the violent Tigris and Yellow, the rivers also served as an easy means of communication. Easy communications facilitated the exchange of ideas and goods while breaking down the culturally retarding barriers of isolation. The size and fertility of the broad valleys made possible a vast increase in the land that could be cultivated, which in turn meant a vast increase in wealth and population; necessary ingredients to the development of large sophisticated social structures. Although great rivers were a common feature of these pioneering civilizations, soil and climate differed, and these differences left a significant imprint on human development. Different climates meant that the rivers nurtured different crops and required different methods of agriculture. Geography and the means by which people turned it to their uses influenced the ways in which societies evolved."
Abstract This paper offers a plan on how to best teach the subject of ancient history. The author states that it would be nearly impossible to present every aspect of human culture and civilization up to 1650 in a single course and that it would, therefore, be wiser to emphasize those events in history that are most relevant to today's society. The paper then states that the most effective way to present these events is chronologically and that, since the course is designed for American students, a great deal of the course should be spent on the study of American history. According to the author, the topic of early American history would address the discovery of America, original explorers, and their interactions with Native Americans, such as Aztecs, Incas, and Maya Indian groups, and the subsequent European settlements.
From the Paper "I, however, think that a chronological study of history is most effective for a number of reasons. Firstly, time, not geography, is the basis for how civilizations develop. In other words, almost every civilization has been influenced by one of the past, regardless of how different in scope they are. For example, the United States? primary influence was that of Colonial England, but it does not end there. Colonial England has influences that date back to the times of Rome, and maybe even Ancient China. Civilizations, no matter what the time period, were not formed within a vacuum?they all had influences, whether directly or indirectly. For that reason, it is best to analyze history through time, and through the developments of the human race as a whole. By examining the entire history of man, we can put the regional developments into context."
Abstract The paper looks at several aspects of the history of the ancient and famed Forbidden City which lies in the Chinese city of Beijing. This includes its location within the city, when, why and how it was built, the reason for its curious name and who its former inhabitants were. The paper also discusses what its purpose is, both in all of those yesterdays long past and today.
From the Paper "China's Forbidden City. Centered firmly in the most important metropolis of the planet's most populous nation, sits one of the wonders of modern or ancient architecture. Sprawling 720,000 square meters, entailing 800 buildings and 9,999 rooms ("Forbidden City" 1), China's famed Forbidden City is a wonder to behold for its own residents and tourists, alike. The former imperial palace grounds stand as a memory of dynasties past, of a nation's ongoing work ethic and ingenious planning and of the triumph of human ingenuity."
This paper examines "Big Dragon China's Future: What it Means for Business, the Economy, and the Global Order" by Daniel Burstein and Arne de Keijzer who both contend that China is well on its way to becoming the world's largest economy.
Abstract This paper reviews Burstein and de Keijzer's "Big Dragon China's Future: What it Means for Business, the Economy, and the Global Order" in which both authors predict that by the 2030s China will be the world's largest economy. This paper discusses the various companies that have suffered due to the shifting politics of foreign policy between China being in favor one day and out the next. This paper also details the views of Jeffrey Garten, a writer for "Harvard Business Review" who sees China as enticement for foreign investors, yet stresses caution should be used in developing any business relationship with China. This well-written paper covers several areas regarding China's economy including a U.S. initiative supporting China's membership in the World Trade Organization, expansion of U.S. public-private partnerships to invest and help solve particular problems in China and development of China's policy mutually with U.S. allies. "Big Dragon" profiles many individual Chinese entrepreneurs and others who are bringing a new China into being. This paper also focuses on Zhang Wei, one of China's more successful entrepreneurs, who went from government researcher to heading a company employing 400 in only three years. Despite the differences between practices in China and other countries, many corporations are willing to take a big gamble on China, seeing that their future is dependent on their performance in China.
From the Paper "Over the course of his history, Zhang has captured the essence of the Chinese business world of "catch-as-catch-can". His corporation has various types of holdings, often-different one from the other. Zhang has bridged the gap across the Pacific with the United States with his position of "master franchise holder in China" of an American company, Fun World. What makes this situation particularly unique is that it is one of the first companies in China "to buy an interest in a U.S. company." At the time Big Dragon was written, Zhang was "negotiating an arrangement that would shift manufacturing of all the equipment for the centers to China." Zhang hopes to take the U.S. company over altogether, including the export of the concept to "other countries and selling the franchisees Chinese-made equipment." Zhang has encountered some problems along the way, problems that are compounded by China's culture and lack of laws, which govern specific business issues. One is that franchisees have stolen the company name and have opened their own centers."
