Abstract
The paper relates that sickle cell disease is caused by a genetic mutation which makes blood cells take the shape of a sickle and become rigid. The paper explains that as a result of their shape and inflexibility, sickle cells cannot travel easily through the narrow blood vessels and tend to form clumps which preclude blood from reaching various organs, joints, and other body parts and this causes a host of problems. The paper reveals that the disease can manifest itself in more or less debilitating ways, ranging from fatigue to stroke, and produce a great deal of pain. The paper relates that there are treatments for different kinds of sickle cell disease, but it still has the effect of shortening the sufferer's lifespan to about 42 year for men and 48 years for women and producing much suffering while the patient lives.

From the Paper
"Sickle Cell disease is caused by a genetic mutation which makes blood cells take the shape of a sickle and become rigid. As a result of their shape and inflexibility, sickle cells cannot travel easily through the narrow blood vessels and tend to form clumps which preclude blood from reaching various organs, joints, and other body parts. This causes a host of problems. The disease can manifest itself in more or less debilitating ways, ranging from fatigue to stroke, and produce a great deal of pain. There are treatments for different kinds of sickle cell disease, but it still has the effect of shortening the sufferer's lifespan to about 42..."

Tags:sickle, cell, disease

Abstract
This paper discusses and explains some basic anatomical features of the body such as the anatomical position, planes and sections through the human body, and homeostasis. Relation of anatomy to physiology.

From the Paper
"The principle of complementarity was developed by Nils Bohr while working in the field of atomic physics, but can be applied to any science. It is an epistemological principle that essentially means that nothing can be studied in isolation, different aspects of the same organ can help us understand its true function in life. An organ's structure cannot be studied without understanding how it functions in the living system. Anatomy relates to physiology in that..."

Tags:complementarity, homeostasis, anatomical position, plane, section

Abstract
The paper explores general reproductive features, male reproductive anatomy, female reproductive anatomy, and human fetal development. Taken as a whole, the aim of the paper is to develop a general understanding of the anatomical features that directly affect human reproduction and the development of human fetuses.

From the Paper
"The purpose of this paper is to examine some of the basic anatomical features of human reproduction including general reproductive features, male reproductive anatomy, female reproductive anatomy, and human fetal development. Taken as a whole, the aim here is to develop a general understanding of the anatomical features that directly affect human reproduction and the development of human fetuses. General Reproductive Information: Human reproduction is sexual and utilizes internal fertilization to create fetuses that will grow into autonomous offspring. The human reproductive..."

Tags:reproduction, human, anatomy

Abstract
This paper discusses the anatomical and physiological processes of cellular metabolism and anabolism, including what each is and what each does, the distinguishing characteristics between the two, how enzymes control the metabolic process, how cells access energy for their activities, how metabolic pathways are regulated and what the metabolic pathways of carbohydrate metabolism are.

From the Paper
"Metabolism is a chemical process that is performed by any living organism, at the cellular level, in order to balance energy. This energy balance is done by processing nutrients that come into the body at the cellular level, and the end result is the maintenance of life. Metabolism, really, is a combination of two separate types of reactions. The first type of reaction that makes up metabolism is catabolism. Catabolism is a decomposition reaction and thus is exergonic, which means that this type of reaction produces more energy than it consumes. Another term for this would be exothermic, that catabolism produces heat. Catabolic reactions take the energy stored in organic molecules and release this energy. Some important catabolic reactions that take place at the cellular level are the Krebs cycle, the electron transport chain, and glycolysis. In many ways, anabolism is the opposite of catabolism. "

Tags:cellular, metabolism, biology

Abstract
The paper presents several rationales behind the increase in ACL injuries among female athletes, including an anatomical explanation. The author differentiates between male and female knee construction, and discusses the increased demand placed on this joint by increasingly competitive female sports.

From the Paper
"There has been a tremendous increase in the number of female athletes in the past generation. Undoubtedly because of the rise in feminism and the consequent rise in consciousness of equality across the board in our culture there has been a simultaneous increase in the number of athletic programs, clinics, sports per se for all categories and at all levels of physical skill. As female athletes have gained a foothold in the world of sports and athletics generally, not surprisingly the female athlete is also experiencing an increase in injuries related to sports events. This is not simply a matter of more injuries per se as the female population increases; it reflects a rise in the injury because of the very nature of the female anatomy."

Tags:medical, knee

Abstract
This paper discusses the anatomical and biological differences between the genders and the social equalities or inequalities that are prevalent. This paper also takes a look at whether these social equalities or inequalities are in-bred or as a result of the cultures and society in which we live.

Contents
The Biologically Based Gender Argument
Psychological Theories on Gender
Cross Cultural Theories on Gender
Gender As Socially Constructed
Gender As A Social Institution
Gender and Six Degrees

From the Paper
"Psychological theories do not support the idea that innate gender differences result in the social, political and economic inequalities that result from gender differences (Kimmel, 1999). Developmental psychologists have focused no the interpretations and definitions of masculinity and femininity and how they change over a person's life, suggesting that the issues confronting people affect gender including the social institutions people use to enact life experiences (Kimmel, 1999).
Carol Tavris suggest that "binary thinking" leads to the notion that 'men act like men' and women act like women'; the psychologists suggest that most differences that exist between women and men in terms of psychological beliefs, abilities traits and values result not from gender differences but rather the result of men and women being in different positions or arenas in life (Kimmel, 12). While differences may appear based on gender they are actually based on multiple factors including culture, environment, relationships and more."

Tags:racial, environment, social, values, sexual, customs

Abstract
This paper details the anatomic components of swallowing, including the oral cavity components, the pharynx, larynx, and esophagus, the associated muscles and nerves, and how they function in normal swallowing. Dysphagia - abnormal swallowing - is also discussed in terms of the anatomical features involved and the effects produced.

From the Paper
"This paper looks at the anatomy of the swallowing process dealing with the oral cavity, the pharynx, larynx and esophagus and the muscles and nerves which make them function. It then looks at the process of normal swallowing which includes the oral stage, the pharyngeal stage and the esophageal stage and the mechanisms which make them function. Next, it describes the types of problems encountered in dysphagia, abnormal swallowing and how these can occur at various points in the swallowing process and how these can be affected by..."

Tags:oral, pharyngeal, esophageal, dysphagia

Abstract
This paper looks in detail at the different types of nervous tissue which include the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and some special senses.

From the Paper
"The nervous system is divided into two main components the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and functions as the command center for the nervous system. The CNS coordinates the activities of the entire body. It receives and analyzes information through the PNS from the sense organs and other receptors throughout the..."

Tags:central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, brain, autronomic nervous system, special senses

From the Paper
"Punting A Football: The Anatomy and Physiology

Complex physical endeavors generally require the coordinated functioning of numerous organs and organ systems. Punting a football, for example, involves the body's special sensory apparatus and nervous system. Through the appropriate neuronal stimuli, an athlete's respiration and heart rate may be elevated. Such adjustments provide for the increased metabolic requirements associated with exertion. Only when these physiologic needs are met, can the athlete perform optimally.

A punter about to kick a football would obviously hear the roar of the crowd. The process of hearing requires several different anatomic structures. These include the external, middle, and inner ear structures. The external ear consists of a flap of elastic cartilage known as the auricle, the external ..."

From the Paper
"Punting a football is an action designed to provide impetus to an external object. Movements of this type culminate in brief contact with an object (moving or still) by a moving body part. In such actions the "imparting of force" is the principal aim and the skills involve applying the force to the correct point, and with appropriate amounts of force, to achieve the desired distance and direction (Wells & Luttgens, 1976, p. 466). The motion involved in kicking the ball is angular in nature as the lower leg engages in rotating about an axis in the knee joint and the thigh moves in a rotatory motion about the hip joint.

The series of movements involved in punting include the flexion of the hip with explosive extension of the knee and plantar flexion of the ankle at the kicking point. The sole base of support from which the kick is launched is the standing ..."