Abstract This paper attempts to explore the proper timing of amino acids and carbohydrates in regard to protein synthesis. It does this by examining the causes of catabolism and what happens during this process, by looking at the building blocks and the types of proteins involved in the process and by studying the function of insulin and how it functions in relation to the intake of carbohydrates.
From the Paper "The field of Biochemistry which ?studies the structure, synthesis and degradation of large molecules found in living cells, their metabolic regulation, and their expression (Spencer, 1997)? is known as molecular biology. These large molecules, or macromolecules, include DNA, RNA, proteins and carbohydrates, and their complexes."
Abstract This paper talks about the supplement, Creatine which is now one of the most popular supplements on the market. It discusses what it is and what it does, and how this controversial supplement can affect the lives of anyone who takes it.
From the paper:
"The first question that pops into your mind when you are about to take something new that you haven?t yet heard of is, "what's in this".
Creatine is a compound that can be made in our bodies or taken as a dietary supplement. The chemical name for Creatine is methyl guanidine-acetic acid. Creatine is made up of three amino acids - Arginine, Glycine and Methionine. Our liver has the ability to combine these three amino acids and make creatine. The other way we get creatine is from our diet (Absolute Creatine)."
Abstract This paper examines the use of creatine monohydrate as a dietary supplement, which dates back as far as the 1920s. The supplement was used by athletes in Europe before its recent debut in the U.S. which is aimed at athletes and body builders. Creatine monohydrate is an amino acid derivative that is formed in the liver, kidneys and pancreas from the amino acids arginine, glycine and methionine. Creatine monohydrate can also be obtained from food, particularly red meat. The musculature of the body has the ability to store more creatine than is used in a typical diet. Athletes take advantage of this ability by literally stuffing a muscle with creatine. This allows for expanded storage and the swifter conversion into adenosine triphosphate. Used over a protracted period of time, the result will be greater hypertrophy and the ability to sustain a longer and more intense workout. It is believed that creatine has a direct anabolic effect on the muscles by acting as a signal to increase protein synthesis during activity overload. This paper focuses on the controversy surrounding the use of the supplement. While supposed links between creatine and the deaths of several wrestlers have been disproved, studies have nonetheless shown that heavy loading is unnecessary and may be counterproductive, if not dangerous.
Table of Contents:
How Creatine Monohydrate Works
Why the Controversy?
Creatine and the Kidneys
The Best Way to Use Creatine
Creatine and Androstenedione
Scientific Studies of Creatine Use
Is It Good or Is It Bad?
Summary
Bibliography
From the Paper "There is a school of though that suggest a phased method of creatine use. A high dosage is used for five days, with the ingesting of as much as 20 grams per day in four doses. The dosage is then reduced to a level just high enough to keep the muscles loaded. Research has indicated that this regimen is not as effective as it was originally thought to be. Continuing to take his doses of creatine after the muscles are saturated will result in the elimination of creating the rough the urinary tract. The increased urinary excretion places stress on the kidneys and liver. Tests have shown that in a loading phase, creatine efficacy peaks at day six and its effects begin to decrease from that time. On the other hand a steady creatine uptake without loading lasts through day 15 and positive effects can last for up to 56 days."
Tags: body, builders, athletes, drugs, anabolic, steroids, risk, death
Abstract In this article, the writer explains that in the study of biology, histones are the main, large, organic compounds made of amino acids that are considered to be among the most important elements of chromatin. Chromatin is the compound and compact form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the nucleus that makes up chromosomes. The paper studies one of the major and core histones, the DNA that wraps the nucleosome around two copies each of histone proteins, the H2AX and focuses on histone as a gene or protein in the aquatic environment. The paper also discusses that histone H2AX is characterized by having a long terminal tail on one end of the amino acid structure and that this feature is the main difference from H2A.
From the Paper "Once the DNA is damaged and its physiology is disturbed in normal healthy individual, the p53 protein or TP53 is activated and can start a cell cycle arrest. The tail of H2XA, also known as the carboxy terminus, rapidly becomes labeled with phosphate groups that generate species called gamma-H2AX. This protein functions as a tumor suppressor and protects the genes as it is closely controlled by phosphorylation. The phosphorylated histone H2AX cooperates in repairing the genetic damage. It preserves the stability of the cells and prevents the onset of tumors. In DNA repair, chromatic reorganization plays an important role. Chromatin is responsible in packaging the DNA into a smaller volume for it to fit in the cell. This process aims to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis, where the cells divides and separates into two identical sets. This is also vital in apoptosis, cell cycle checkpoints, and serves as a mechanism to control inheritable information from a gene. The H2AX histone phosphorylation kinetics correlated well with the kinetics of DNA-adducts removal at earlier recovery time points. The chromatin reorganization is composed of proteins that are involved in the process."
From the Paper "Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disorder characterized by an inability of the body to utilize one of the constituents of a normal diet- phenylalanine (PHE), which is one of the essential amino acids. Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized within the body. It means that they have to be taken in from the foods. PHE is found in all protein foods such as meat, eggs, fish, milk, cheese, and so forth. "
"Lipids are hydrocarbons that are found in living systems in the environment. The main classes of lipids are triglycerides, waxes, steroids, phospholipids, gylcolipids, and sphingolipids (Glanze). The simplest lipid, which makes up the backbone of all of these, is the fatty acid (see page 2). The main characteristics that separate the different kinds of lipids are the derivatives, such as acids, alcohols, amines, amino alcohols, and aldehydes, found on the end of the hydrocarbons and their solubility in water. Most lipids are non polar and there for are not soluble in water but instead in fat solvents such as ether, chloroform, and benzene. From these two basic distinctions, there are dozens of possible lipids that can be formed in nature and synthetically (Cooper)."
Abstract The importance of DNA repair mechanisms and the fascinating enzymes involved within them have been underestimated. Without these repair proteins, our DNA would be fatally mutated at such a frequency to extinguish life as we know it. This paper reviews a piece of current research on the proteins that allow repair to occur. Some novel details about the flexibility and dynamics of several proteins are revealed through 3-D imaging of the proteins. The regulation of these proteins is also postulated in light of the data collected.
From the Paper "Replication protein A (RPA) is a nuclear single stranded DNA (ssDNA) binding protein in eukaryotes and is essential to DNA replication, recombination and repair. With all the cell division going on in a developing embryo, the chance of deleterious mutation goes up for certain and thus there is a greater need for a functioning DNA repair mechanism. There is definitely a lot of replication and transcription of DNA going on during early post-fertilization growth and mitotic divisions that need to be conserved. Also important is the all-important preservation of gametogenesis during the first week of development. Without means to repair all the statistically inevitable mistakes during mitosis and meiosis, none of us would have the functional gametes to pass on viable DNA to future generations. The repair protein mechanisms and the role RPA plays to lower the activation energy of the reactions makes sense to be selected for in order for our "selfish genes" to continue to thrive. RPA was known prior to this study and so was something about it's role in excision repair, but what was not known was the specific tertiary and quaternary structure of the subunits and active sites in the enzyme that allowed for the observed activity."
Abstract When it comes to nutrition, terms like carbohydrate, lipid, monosaccharides, protein and cholesterol can sound almost like a foreign language. With all the conflicting reports of what affects ones body and what does harm, it is no wonder that people are so confused. The paper shows, however, that the importance of these substances is so vital that by understanding what they are, as well as how they are used by our bodies can certainly benefit our health and overall well being.
From the Paper "By definition, a carbohydrate is group of chemical compounds that exist when hydrogen and oxygen (H2O) are then combined with carbon (Ed., Encarta). Carbohydrates are the largest group of organic compounds found in nature (Encarta). Humans, animals, plants and bacteria all use carbohydrates, and the uses for them varies depending on the organism using them. Plants use them for structural uses ? as in the cellulose and hemicellulose that are their main structural elements (Encarta). The cell coatings of the connective tissues in vertebrate animals have carbohydrates in them; both animals and plants use various forms of carbohydrates to store energy (Encarta). Chitin is a carbohydrate, and is the primary ingredient for the exoskeleton of invertebrate animals (Encarta)."
Abstract This paper provides a brief overview of the evolutionary process and the concepts known as protein folding and selective expression. The paper begins with a look at the role of DNA and continues with an account of the history of DNA sequencing and a discussion of the different applications for genome sequencing. The paper also discusses the importance of the study of genomes of different species, known as comparative genomics, and explains an aspect of genome sequencing known as hemology.
From the Paper "The study of genomes of different species would present us with a better picture as to the evolutionary trends, bioarcheology and anthropology. Researchers have identified that 99.9% of the genome information is common for the different human races stressing once again the possibility of a common ancestral origin. In the same vein they have also found that the chimpanzees have about 98.4% of genetic information common with humans. [ Hecht, J] So the improvements in genome science is helping us ascertain our evolutionary trends better than ever before. Similarly mouse and human beings are found to share 97.5% of the DNA material implicating a common ancestral origin some hundred million years ago. [Cohlan, A]"
Abstract This paper discusses how cardiovascular disease, including atherosclerosis, is a serious public health problem responsible for vast numbers of hospitalizations and deaths each year and how the costs of treatments, including drugs and procedures, is exponential. It examines how, in order to develop effective treatments and prevention strategies, potential causes of atherosclerosis must be addressed. Homocysteine is an amino acid found in the blood in different concentrations. It explores how research evidence has shown considerable correlations between elevated homocysteine levels and an increased risk of atherosclerosis. It aims to thoroughly examine the role that homocysteine plays in atherosclerosis and the extent to which certain biological and lifestyle factors, such as vitamin status and diet, affect levels of homocysteine and the presence and progression of atherosclerosis.
Outline
Evidence of the Relationship Between Homocysteine and Atherosclerosis
The Effects of Diet and Vitamin Supplementation on Homocysteine Levels
Genetic Variation and Homocysteine
Implications for Intervention
From the Paper "Suliman et al. (2003) reported that in studies of patients with end-stage renal disease that had very high levels of homocysteine (greater than 90%), total homocysteine levels were strongly associated to serum albumin levels. Also, patients with malnutrition had lower levels of total homocysteine and serum albumin than people with normal nutritional status. In addition, inflammation, diabetes and cardiovascular disease were all found to be associated with hypoalbuminia, and therefore, with lower levels of hyperhomocysteinemia. Furthermore, these researchers demonstrated with different groups of patients with end-stage renal disease, which should be noted, have inherently higher levels of homocysteine, that increased total homocysteine levels are associated with lower cardiovascular disease mortality."
Abstract This paper looks at one of the most debilitating of the illnesses that are associated with the aging process, Alzheimer's disease, which affects memory, cognition, and behavior. It provides a comprehensive and scholarly overview of Alzheimer's disease, its etiology and incidence, typical treatments and overall prognosis. A review of new research into Alzheimer's causes and treatments is followed by a summary of the research in the conclusion.
From the Paper "The etiology of Alzheimer's disease can be conceptualized as being a developmental reversal of a child becoming an adult. "The Alzheimer's patient moves in an opposite trajectory from the infant who acquires increasingly complex skills and capacities over time; instead, the person with Alzheimer's loses skills and capacities as memory fails to support the array of adult activities" (Martinson & Muwaswes, 1993, p. 229). According to Maurish and Moses (1997), it was assumed by researchers until fairly recent times that certain mental disorders had an organic basis, whereas others were described as functional; here, the term functional was conservatively defined as having no known organic basis."
Tags: acid, aging, amino, dementia, disorder, elderly, hormone, security, social
Abstract This paper discusses the importance of proteins and protein folding to the human body. The paper explains that, during the different stages of protein folding that include primary, secondary, tertiary and sometimes-quaternary structures, the protein becomes susceptible to incorrect folding by binding with other molecules. The paper explores these "misfoldings", which may cause diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, cystic fibrosis, and many cancers. The paper states that researchers continue to try and comprehend the reasons and methods of protein "misfolding" to further our knowledge of the diseases that are caused by it.
From the Paper "Proteins are the biochemical molecules that make up cells, organs and organisms. (1) Like the larger structures, proteins also put themselves together, in a process termed "folding." Protein folding is the process by which a protein assumes its functional shape or conformation. All protein molecules are simple unbranched chains of amino acids, but it is by coiling into a specific three-dimensional shape that they are able to perform their biological function. The proteins fold into either alpha or beta helices with the assistance of chaperon proteins. (1)"
Abstract HMB (beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate) is a patented amino acid metabolite that was discovered at Iowa State University. Supplemental HMB increases lean muscle mass, strength, and VO2 Max, while increasing fat loss. This paper examines the scholarly and peer-reviewed literature and relevant online sources to determine just what HMB is, how it works, and who should or should not use it. A summary of the research and salient findings are provided in the conclusion. The paper includes an appendix, "Comparison of Daily Costs of Various Nutrition Supplements Used by Athletes," which is not included in the word count
From the Paper "HMB is produced naturally by the human body and can also be found in foods like catfish and grapefruit; however, it may not be practical or advantageous for athletes to consume these foods on a regular basis (Armsey & Green, June 1997, 9). HMB is used in order to boost strength levels, enhance muscle gains in size and prevent muscle tissue breakdown which can occur during periods of intensive exercising because scientists believe that HMB aids in the body's attempt to minimize protein breakdown. By minimizing the breakdown, HMB helps the body recover faster from exercise and leads to quicker strength and muscle gains. In sports and body building circles, HMB is known for its ability to promote fat loss and enhance muscle growth. HMB appears to upgrade the body's natural potential to build muscle and burn body fat by minimizing the muscle tissue breakdown that occurs after intense exercise sessions."
Abstract This paper presents an overview of the Human Genome Project. The paper begins by listing the project sponsors and explaining that the project's primary purpose was to map the human genome. Next, the paper briefly explains what a genome is and notes that the project was completed in 2003. Additionally, the paper explains that another objective of the project was to identify all of the genes in the human genome and that, at the heart of all of these objectives, was the goal of advancing the diagnosis and prevention of diseases, and advancing biotechnology and fundamental knowledge in medicine. The paper also discusses the controversial issues surrounding the Human Genome Project as well as social and ethical considerations of the project. Finally, the paper looks at the project's implication regarding the topic of evolution and concludes that, despite the controversy enveloping the project, its benefits exceed its disadvantages.
Table of Contents
Controversies
Accuracy of the Project
Societal Effects of the Human Genome Project
Ethics and the Human Genome Project
The Human Genome Project and Evolution
From the Paper "As with many scientific advances and projects, there are many points of contention surrounding the Human Genome Project. These controversies range from arguments about whether the HGP should exist at all to minor quibbles regarding the project's inner workings. Below are descriptions of two of these contested issues."
Abstract This paper looks at the discovery of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick and other scientists. It describes the structure of the DNA molecule and how it replicates, how mistakes in replication are corrected, and how replication is semi-conservative. It then looks at transcription and translation, and gives an example of a 3 codon sequence, its DNA code, its mRNA translation, and the amino acids it codes for.
