Abstract
This paper attempts to explore the proper timing of amino acids and carbohydrates in regard to protein synthesis. It does this by examining the causes of catabolism and what happens during this process, by looking at the building blocks and the types of proteins involved in the process and by studying the function of insulin and how it functions in relation to the intake of carbohydrates.

From the Paper
"The field of Biochemistry which "studies the structure, synthesis and degradation of large molecules found in living cells, their metabolic regulation, and their expression (Spencer, 1997)" is known as molecular biology. These large molecules, or macromolecules, include DNA, RNA, proteins and carbohydrates, and their complexes."

Tags:catabolism, insulin, molecular, biology, RNA, synthesis, protein, consumption

Abstract
This paper explains that the normal turnover of amino acids (AA), the fundamental building blocks of proteins, occurs through a series of enzymatically controlled steps; however, a defective enzyme cannot catabolize a particular AA, which can lead to abnormal accumulations of secondary metabolites and to depletion of downstream intermediaries. Next, the author discuses phenylketonuria, maple syrup disease and homocystinuria, which are inborn errors of metabolism disorders. The paper relates that, because a high protein diet can be dangerous and considered to be a metabolic poison for infants, the best therapy is a semisynthetic diet that restricts the involved amino acid.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Normal Amino Acid Chemistry and Physiology
Enzymes and Enzyme Defects in Inborn Errors Of Metabolism
Alterations in AA Metabolism
Maple Syrup Disease
Metabolic Effects of High-Protein Diet
Diet in Inborn Errors of Amino Acid Metabolism
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Genes exert their effects on organisms indirectly. For most genes, the genetic information contained in the nucleotide sequence specifies a particular type of protein. Proteins control the chemical and physical processes of cells known as metabolism. Many proteins are enzymes, which are biological catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions. Enzymes are essential for the breakdown of organic molecules, generating the chemical energy needed for cellular activities; they are also essential for the synthesis of small molecules and for their assembly into larger molecules and complex cellular structures.
"Any hereditary disease in which the cellular metabolism is abnormal results from an inherited defect in an enzyme. Such diseases are known as inborn errors of metabolism. Any sequence of biochemical reactions is called a biochemical pathway or a metabolic pathway. Each step requires a specific enzyme to catalyze the reaction and allow the chemical transformation to take place. Persons with an inborn error of metabolism have a defect in one step of a metabolic pathway because they lack a functional enzyme for that step. The pathway is thus, said to have a block at that step. One frequent result of a blocked pathway is that the substrate of the defective enzyme accumulates to toxic levels and/or depletion of downstream intermediates, leading to clinical pathology."

Tags:hereditary pathways mutation odor, micronutrient composition

Abstract
This paper explains insulin protein synthesis, and the DNA and amino acids, plus the function of enzymes involved in the DNA replication.

From the Paper
"Insulin increases protein synthesis through a cell-signaling pathway involving the enzyme mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase. (O'Brien) MAP kinase is activated by insulin and growth factors. (O'Brien) Insulin binds to its cell-surface receptor, then triggers an internal reaction path involving at least six intermediate proteins and enzymes, at the end of which the signal arrives at the MAP kinase enzyme. (O'Brien) At this point, the PHAS-I protein is activated by MAP kinase creating a reaction..."

Tags:insulin, DNA replication, gene, expression, enzyme, amino acid, protein synthesis

Abstract
In this article, the writer describes an experiment/study on how temperature affects fermentation rate, using wine yeasts. The writer looks at common types of fermentation. Further, the writer discusses beneficial effects of fermentation such as fighting infection, detoxification, and serving as a source of amino acids, vitamins and minerals.

From the Paper
"Fermentation is the energy-yielding anaerobic metabolic breakdown of a nutrient molecule such as glucose without net oxidation but can also be used to mean the bulk growth of microorganisms on some medium. The most commonly known type of fermentation is that of sugar into alcohol in conjunction with yeast but fermentation is also used as a means of preserving food as in yogurt kefir sauerkraut and kimchee. Zymology or the science of fermentation studies the different factors ..."

Tags:fermentation rate, temperature, yeast, pH, oxidation, zymology, amino acids, infection

Abstract
In this article, the writer explains that in the study of biology, histones are the main, large, organic compounds made of amino acids that are considered to be among the most important elements of chromatin. Chromatin is the compound and compact form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the nucleus that makes up chromosomes. The paper studies one of the major and core histones, the DNA that wraps the nucleosome around two copies each of histone proteins, the H2AX and focuses on histone as a gene or protein in the aquatic environment. The paper also discusses that histone H2AX is characterized by having a long terminal tail on one end of the amino acid structure and that this feature is the main difference from H2A.

From the Paper
"Once the DNA is damaged and its physiology is disturbed in normal healthy individual, the p53 protein or TP53 is activated and can start a cell cycle arrest. The tail of H2XA, also known as the carboxy terminus, rapidly becomes labeled with phosphate groups that generate species called gamma-H2AX. This protein functions as a tumor suppressor and protects the genes as it is closely controlled by phosphorylation. The phosphorylated histone H2AX cooperates in repairing the genetic damage. It preserves the stability of the cells and prevents the onset of tumors. In DNA repair, chromatic reorganization plays an important role. Chromatin is responsible in packaging the DNA into a smaller volume for it to fit in the cell. This process aims to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis, where the cells divides and separates into two identical sets. This is also vital in apoptosis, cell cycle checkpoints, and serves as a mechanism to control inheritable information from a gene. The H2AX histone phosphorylation kinetics correlated well with the kinetics of DNA-adducts removal at earlier recovery time points. The chromatin reorganization is composed of proteins that are involved in the process."

Tags:DNA, tumor, cells, radiation, protection

Abstract
This paper talks about the supplement, Creatine which is now one of the most popular supplements on the market. It discusses what it is and what it does, and how this controversial supplement can affect the lives of anyone who takes it.

From the paper:

"The first question that pops into your mind when you are about to take something new that you haven't yet heard of is, "what's in this".
Creatine is a compound that can be made in our bodies or taken as a dietary supplement. The chemical name for Creatine is methyl guanidine-acetic acid. Creatine is made up of three amino acids - Arginine, Glycine and Methionine. Our liver has the ability to combine these three amino acids and make creatine. The other way we get creatine is from our diet (Absolute Creatine)."

Tags:controversial, creatine, issues, paper, research, sports, supplements, health, fitness, weight, gain, muscle, training, phosphate, monohydrate

Abstract
This paper examines the use of creatine monohydrate as a dietary supplement, which dates back as far as the 1920s. The supplement was used by athletes in Europe before its recent debut in the U.S. which is aimed at athletes and body builders. Creatine monohydrate is an amino acid derivative that is formed in the liver, kidneys and pancreas from the amino acids arginine, glycine and methionine. Creatine monohydrate can also be obtained from food, particularly red meat. The musculature of the body has the ability to store more creatine than is used in a typical diet. Athletes take advantage of this ability by literally stuffing a muscle with creatine. This allows for expanded storage and the swifter conversion into adenosine triphosphate. Used over a protracted period of time, the result will be greater hypertrophy and the ability to sustain a longer and more intense workout. It is believed that creatine has a direct anabolic effect on the muscles by acting as a signal to increase protein synthesis during activity overload. This paper focuses on the controversy surrounding the use of the supplement. While supposed links between creatine and the deaths of several wrestlers have been disproved, studies have nonetheless shown that heavy loading is unnecessary and may be counterproductive, if not dangerous.

Table of Contents:
How Creatine Monohydrate Works
Why the Controversy?
Creatine and the Kidneys
The Best Way to Use Creatine
Creatine and Androstenedione
Scientific Studies of Creatine Use
Is It Good or Is It Bad?
Summary
Bibliography

From the Paper
"There is a school of though that suggest a phased method of creatine use. A high dosage is used for five days, with the ingesting of as much as 20 grams per day in four doses. The dosage is then reduced to a level just high enough to keep the muscles loaded. Research has indicated that this regimen is not as effective as it was originally thought to be. Continuing to take his doses of creatine after the muscles are saturated will result in the elimination of creating the rough the urinary tract. The increased urinary excretion places stress on the kidneys and liver. Tests have shown that in a loading phase, creatine efficacy peaks at day six and its effects begin to decrease from that time. On the other hand a steady creatine uptake without loading lasts through day 15 and positive effects can last for up to 56 days."

Tags:body, builders, athletes, drugs, anabolic, steroids, risk, death

Abstract
HMB (beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate) is a patented amino acid metabolite that was discovered at Iowa State University. Supplemental HMB increases lean muscle mass, strength, and VO2 Max, while increasing fat loss. This paper examines the scholarly and peer-reviewed literature and relevant online sources to determine just what HMB is, how it works, and who should or should not use it. A summary of the research and salient findings are provided in the conclusion. The paper includes an appendix, "Comparison of Daily Costs of Various Nutrition Supplements Used by Athletes," which is not included in the word count

From the Paper
"HMB is produced naturally by the human body and can also be found in foods like catfish and grapefruit; however, it may not be practical or advantageous for athletes to consume these foods on a regular basis (Armsey & Green, June 1997, 9). HMB is used in order to boost strength levels, enhance muscle gains in size and prevent muscle tissue breakdown which can occur during periods of intensive exercising because scientists believe that HMB aids in the body's attempt to minimize protein breakdown. By minimizing the breakdown, HMB helps the body recover faster from exercise and leads to quicker strength and muscle gains. In sports and body building circles, HMB is known for its ability to promote fat loss and enhance muscle growth. HMB appears to upgrade the body's natural potential to build muscle and burn body fat by minimizing the muscle tissue breakdown that occurs after intense exercise sessions."

Tags:protein, vitamins, artery

Abstract
This paper looks at lipids and other fats of the body. The author discusses their composition and functions.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Triglycerides
3. Tables and Pictures
4. Waxes
5. Steroids
6. Cholesterol
7. Phospholipids
8. Glycolipids
9. Sphingolipids
10. Consumption of Lipids
11. Storage of Lipids
12. Lipid Oxidation
13. Lipid Bilayer
14. Atherosclerosis
15. Gallstones
16. Artheriosclerosis
17. Coronary Heart Disease
18. Conclusion

From the paper:

"Lipids are hydrocarbons that are found in living systems in the environment. The main classes of lipids are triglycerides, waxes, steroids, phospholipids, gylcolipids, and sphingolipids (Glanze). The simplest lipid, which makes up the backbone of all of these, is the fatty acid (see page 2). The main characteristics that separate the different kinds of lipids are the derivatives, such as acids, alcohols, amines, amino alcohols, and aldehydes, found on the end of the hydrocarbons and their solubility in water. Most lipids are non polar and there for are not soluble in water but instead in fat solvents such as ether, chloroform, and benzene. From these two basic distinctions, there are dozens of possible lipids that can be formed in nature and synthetically (Cooper)."

Tags:anatomy, body, cholesterol, fats, human, lipids, obesity

Abstract
This paper discusses how cardiovascular disease, including atherosclerosis, is a serious public health problem responsible for vast numbers of hospitalizations and deaths each year and how the costs of treatments, including drugs and procedures, is exponential. It examines how, in order to develop effective treatments and prevention strategies, potential causes of atherosclerosis must be addressed. Homocysteine is an amino acid found in the blood in different concentrations. It explores how research evidence has shown considerable correlations between elevated homocysteine levels and an increased risk of atherosclerosis. It aims to thoroughly examine the role that homocysteine plays in atherosclerosis and the extent to which certain biological and lifestyle factors, such as vitamin status and diet, affect levels of homocysteine and the presence and progression of atherosclerosis.

Outline
Evidence of the Relationship Between Homocysteine and Atherosclerosis
The Effects of Diet and Vitamin Supplementation on Homocysteine Levels
Genetic Variation and Homocysteine
Implications for Intervention

From the Paper
"Suliman et al. (2003) reported that in studies of patients with end-stage renal disease that had very high levels of homocysteine (greater than 90%), total homocysteine levels were strongly associated to serum albumin levels. Also, patients with malnutrition had lower levels of total homocysteine and serum albumin than people with normal nutritional status. In addition, inflammation, diabetes and cardiovascular disease were all found to be associated with hypoalbuminia, and therefore, with lower levels of hyperhomocysteinemia. Furthermore, these researchers demonstrated with different groups of patients with end-stage renal disease, which should be noted, have inherently higher levels of homocysteine, that increased total homocysteine levels are associated with lower cardiovascular disease mortality."

Tags:heart, malnutrition, vitamins, hormones