Abstract
This paper relates that Amin Maalouf used Arab chroniclers, diarists and historians of which were several first-hand accounts to write the story of the Crusades from the perspective of the Arabs. The paper points out that, in his book "The Crusades through Arab Eyes", Maalouf writes about the brutal behavior of the crusaders towards both Jews and Muslims particularly in the sacred city of Jerusalem. The paper explains that the book indicates that several comparative accounts differ about Muslim and Christian rule, especially in the Muslim capture of the crusader states such as Edessa and Antioch.

Table of Contents:
Sources
Chapters I-III
Chapters VIII-IX
Chapter X-XI

From the Paper
"The Zengi sultanate was established by Imad ed-Din Zengi, the Seljuk governor of Mosul in 1127. He also ruled over Northern Syria and Iraq as well as Aleppo. In 1144, Imad ed-Din Zengi captured the county of Edessa, the first crusader state to be established by the armies of the First Crusade. His capture of Edessa had then made Imad ed-Din Zengi a hero in the Muslim world but this was short-lived as he was soon killed by a slave in 1146. The territories under Zengi's ruling were then divided between his two sons."

Tags:invasion first-hand, salah al-din, captives zengi

Abstract
The paper goes into great detail over whether or not the Grand Mufti Haj Amin El Husseini actively participated in the systematic elimination of Jews in Europe and in Palestine through the 1930s and 1940s. The paper is divided up into three sections that outline events during the Grand Mufti's life. The first section discusses his role in organizing anti-Zionist movements in Palestine upon his appointment of Grand Mufti by the British Mandate. The tactics of workers' strikes and actual attacks on Jews were committed under orders from Haj Amin. The second section deals with his role in Nazi Germany after the British reasserted their control over Palestine at the outbreak of World War II. Specific examples are given from radio transcripts and personal diaries that discuss the Mufti's ideas and rhetoric during this time period. These clearly point to his support of Hitler's "Final Solution" plan to eliminate the Jews in Europe. Finally, there is a discussion of Haj Amin's guilt and the level to which he knew what his actions were doing. Testimony from the Nuremberg Trials are given, as well as aides to former Nazi Leader Adolf Eichmann, who pointed to Haj Amin's actions of drumming up anti-Jewish sentiment as key to the Holocaust.

From the Paper
"Appointed as the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem in 1921 by British authorities, Haj Amin el Husseini spent the majority of his life struggling to create a Pan-Arabic state in the Middle East and limit Jewish influences in Palestine. His ideas and philosophies continue to exist in modernity, and his legacy exists in the Middle East as an individual who stood up to the West and attempted to bring together the teachings of Islam with a strong degree of nationalism in Palestine. Notable adherents to the Grand Mufti's teachings were the Iranian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and former Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat, who was particularly appreciative of what Haj Amin had accomplished for the Palestinian people in his lifetime. Haj Amin el Husseini died in Lebanon in 1974, and after his death there was a massive outpouring of support for the work that he had done to bring Muslims together in the region against the West and the Jewish state of Israel. Despite this support by many Muslims after his death, the most dubious interval of Haj Amin's life deals with his support of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime during World War II."

Tags:arab, conflict, eastern, holocaust, jewish, middle, nazi, nazis, palestine, relations

Abstract
The paper asserts that most people in the West have only a partial understanding of the people of the Middle East and too often see those people through their own social and historical prism. The paper discusses how this was recalled when the current war in Iraq began and U.S. government officials were cautioned against using the term "crusade" to refer to the war being fought against terrorists and others in the Middle East. The paper explains that this term has a neutral coloration in the West, while it recalls the earlier Crusades to the people of the Middle East and has an aura of imperialism and Western superiority. The paper looks at how much of this is analyzed in the book "The Crusades Through Arab Eyes" by Amin Maalouf.

From the Paper
"Most people in the West have only a partial understanding of the people of the Middle East and too often see those people through their own social and historical prism. This was recalled when the current war in Iraq began and U.S. government officials were cautioned against using the term "crusade" to refer to the war being fought against terrorists and others in the Middle East. The term has a neutral coloration in the West, while it recalls the earlier Crusades to the people of the Middle East and has an aura of imperialism and Western superiority. Much of this is analyzed in the book "The Crusades Through Arab Eyes" by Amin Maalouf. Amin Maalouf is a Lebanese journalist and novelist. His native language is..."

Tags:crusades, arab, maalouf

Abstract
This essay provides an analysis of Amin Maalouf's "The Crusades Through Arab Eyes". A number of issues related to the Crusades from the Arab perspective are provided, including both Christian and Muslim leaders, goals, successes, and failures.

From the Paper
"In Amin Maalouf's "The Crusades Through Arab Eyes", the Lebanese journalist offers an account of the Crusades from the Arab perspective. The Crusades occurred at a time when Arab culture was viewed by the West as sophisticated and advanced compared to the Franj Franks or all Westerners, who were unrefined in comparison, amounting to a reversal of modern perspective. Likewise, Maalouf's account demonstrates that the Crusades were a turning point in Arab-Muslim history. To whit, parochialism in the Middle East..."

Tags:Constantinople, Jerusalem, Islam, military conflict, Mamluks, Holy Land, Saladin, Richard the Lionhearted, pilgrims

Abstract
The paper looks at the anatomical origins of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline and their associated pathways, as well as the basic anatomy of the limbic system and its associated structures. The essay then goes on to explain that our brain is structured such that certain environmental stimuli can cause us to have positive or negative reinforcing experiences based on how our neurochemicals react in response to the situation. The reward pathways in our brain help to determine much of our everyday behavior, whether it may be the urge to eat, the drive to have sex or the addiction associated with mind-altering drugs. As such, we must receive appropriate stimulation and positive reward in order to function as individuals and be happy, or we are at risk of a reward deficiency resulting in negative emotions such as sadness or depression. There is also a discussion of how addictive behavior can be due to positive reward systems which have a very strong influence on the way we act.

From the Paper
"Happiness and sadness are two primary human emotions, and whilst more often than not caused as a result of external stimuli, they are largely determined by neurobiological processes that occur in the brain namely that of biogenic amine reward pathways. We have to stimulate these pathways adequately every day if we are to function well mentally, physically and emotionally. The experience of emotion is integral to who we are as humans. Darwin (1872 in Ekman, 1973) defined emotion as essential to the welfare of group-living species. Without emotion, we would be unable to be attracted to one another, reproduce, or interact socially, amongst other things. Emotions also have distinct motivational properties (Izard, 1971) and understandably, the reward system and its close association with pleasure plays a large part in determining our actions. "Pleasure is unquestionably a key factor in controlling the motivated behaviors of humans." (Kandel et. al., 2000 p.1007) Emotions are known to lead to specific behavioral patterns that determine the way in which we live our lives and influence the experience of consequent emotions, for example, happiness or sadness."

Tags:addiction, antidepressants, dopaminergic, hippocampus

Abstract
This paper explores how the invasion of Afghanistan became the end of a long history of the Soviets doing everything in their power to secure their interests in Afghanistan. It explains that the installment of Karmal and the deaths of thousands of rebels resulted from the notion that they were invited in to protect the government of Amin. The loss of the war sent the nation into a frenzy, desperately trying to point fingers at who was to blame for what was the culmination of years of selfishness. The loss was so shocking because the USSR had managed to get what it wanted for almost a century and had finally realized that the self-determination of a country is stronger than the political favors it tried to curry from it. It examines how ,throughout their entire time together, the Soviet Union used Afghanistan to install leaders that would suit its needs and getting rid of ones that would not. When things got bad, they violated the laws of the highest political power in the world just so that they could make sure their interests were secured. In this specific example, it is easy to see the selfishness of a world superpower and the way that strong nations use weak, underdeveloped countries as if their existence on this earth is merely for the gain of others.

From the Paper
""[Our] government will strictly follow the policy of non-alignment and strive for good relationships with neighboring Pakistan and Iran.1" This statement by Afghan leader Hafizullah Amin has two key elements to it: first, it points out that the goal of Amin's short reign was to dramatically lessen the influence that the Soviet Union had had on his country for more than forty years; and secondly, to give special emphasis to the growing friendship between Afghanistan and their new alliances, Pakistan and Iran, which were, at the time, both controlled largely by Islamic (non-Communist) groups and friendly with the United States. Amin, while trying to lessen his public animosity for the Soviet Union, clearly had no love for his Russian neighbors and wanted to end any and all influence the Soviet Union had on his country. So, when the Soviet Union launched their invasion of Afghanistan on December 27, 1979, it came as some surprise that the Soviet Union claimed to be acting on a request of Amin's, especially after his execution by Soviet hands. The fact is the Soviet Union was doing just what it had been doing for years; acting out of its own interests. A look at the Soviet Union's long history of intervention and influence will show the selfish behavior and superior ideology of the Soviet Union that led to a devastating invasion. The entirety of their relationship was based merely on Soviet desires to control the country, reap it of its goods and to stamp out any and all influence or their cold war enemy, the United States."

Tags:Hafizullah, Amin, communist, Khrushchev, cold, war, pakistan

Abstract
The paper discusses how for scholars and academicians alike, the emergence of the modern state represents one of the most interesting and studied phenomena in the history of human civilization. The paper notes that while in past centuries the idea of the modern state was embraced as a progressive alternative to the feudalistic systems of the Middle Ages, in recent years the world has witnessed widespread decline in the intellectual popularity of the notion. The paper looks at how one expert points out that many critics view the notion of the modern state as nothing more than a relic of centuries past "localized in time and space" (Amin 1997, p. 65).

From the Paper
"For scholars and academicians alike, the emergence of the modern state represents one of the most interesting and studied phenomena in the history of human civilization. And while in past centuries the idea of the modern state was embraced as a progressive alternative to the feudalistic systems of the Middle Ages, in recent years the world has witnessed widespread decline in the intellectual popularity of the notion. Along these lines, one expert points out that many critics view the notion of the modern state as nothing more than a relic of centuries past "localized...""

Tags:globalization, modernization, modern state

Abstract
This paper examines the motivations behind Hitler's choices about the nations and governments that Nazi Germany should aligned itself. This paper discusses specifically his motivations for aligning himself with Japan, Italy, and with Grand Mufti Amin al-Hussein. The paper also discusses how his propaganda machine explained and justified these alliances to the German people.

From the Paper
"Adolf Hitler assumed power in Germany in 1933. One of his first acts as Fuhrer was to create two propaganda teams and they in-turn destroyed the free press in their wake. The mission of the Nazi press was to convey Hitler's will in editorials and to print only the Nazi point-of-view on foreign events. Propaganda was defined by Edward Bernays as the "standardized code of social conduct". In the case of Germany using allies of convenience, rather than conviction, the Nazi party used propaganda to alter their standardized code of political conduct. Hitler continually changed allies and ally agreements while using an "us vs. them" mentality, which just made it harder to know who was an "us" and who was a "them", so that it seemed even when Germany had allies, all they really had were fellow Germans. The main proof for Hitler having allies of convenience, instead of conviction, is that he made great use of the phrase: the enemy of my enemy is my friend."

Tags:adolf hitler, nazi germany, axis powers, wwII propaganda ideology japan

Abstract
This paper compares the work "South Englishes, North Englishes" by Nuzhat Amin and "Why My Mother Can't Speak English" by Gary Engkent. This paper reviews the commonality of both, in that foreigners or those speaking with a foreign accent, are often not accepted fully into the society of the "new" country.

From the Paper
"In comparing the Nuzhat Amin's "South Englishes, North Englishes" and Gary Engkent's "Why My Mother Can't Speak English" one becomes aware of some of the positive and negative effects of language on culture. These effects are often a result of what Amin describes as a "native speaker's" "views of language [which] often correspond to views of social status of language users" (Amin 159)/ As a result, those who speak with English with an accent or as in Engkent's story, someone who is unable or not willing to become fluent in the new language, are often placed in a position that sets them aside."

Tags:culture, language, comparison

Abstract
This paper agrees with Machiavelli's idea that the only distinction between the prince and tyrant is the latter's improper motivation in self-gain. The author uses examples pertaining to World War II such as Churchill and Hitler and to Idi Amin. The paper presents quotations from both "The Prince" and "The Discourses" and commentary on Machiavelli's times and career, which shaped his political thought."

From the Paper
"This paper discusses the distinction made between a prince and a tyrant by Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), a figure often referred to as the father of modern political theory. In his well-known "The Prince" (1513) and the manuscript known as "The Discourses" (1531) which seem to further develop many of the ideas found in "The Prince", Machiavelli made clear the important distinction that he saw. Machiavelli's manner of thinking continues to be visible in the contemporary world, in distinctions that can be made between leaders and ordinary tyrants to have achieved political power."

Tags:machiavelli, prince, discourses