Abstract
This paper examines the concept of presidential leadership and the theory of political time delineated in Stephen Skowronek's "The Politics Presidents Make". The idea of political time means first that the given president is situated at different points in the life-cycle of a given political regime and, second, that presidents stand in different relation to the dominant political regime and its "regime party." The paper also focuses on what Skowronek calls "orthodox-innovators", or leaders whose actions are strongly influenced by the ulterior motives of his regime. The paper considers how this applies to the current war in Iraq and to the actions of George W. Bush in taking the U.S. into that war. It concludes that this issue has been much argued since the start of that war and will continue to be discussed far into the future, not simply until the war ends but long after as historians and others seek to understand the rationale for this war.

Outline:
Introduction
Political Time
Political Regime
The Orthodox-Innovator
Iraq

From the Paper
"Skowronek identifies the orthodox-innovator as a "faithful son," meaning not a son of a political leader but a son of a political party, movement, or regime that shapes the faithful son's political leanings and career. These are also the presidents who are associated with "a resilient set of governmental commitments" (Skowronek 41). The presidents considered here all fit the mold, meaning James Monroe, James K. Polk, Theodore Roosevelt, Lyndon Johnson, George H.W. Bush, and George W. Bush. All emerged from a political tradition they could be expected to support and yet that they in part denied as they pursued their little wars, often in order to assert American power not just to other countries but domestically as well, supposedly correcting earlier failures to do so and thus affirming the strengths their followers want supported, or doing so to counter charges by the opposition of weakness. It is considered less surprising when a Republican president affirms American power by engaging in a military action, for instance, while a Democratic president might do so just to show that the view that Democratic leaders are not able to handle the need for a military response."

Tags:Gulf, War, political, regime

Abstract
This paper examines the role played by then-President George W. Bush at the start of the Iraq War. The paper explains that as part of his analysis of presidential leadership and his development of the theory of political time, Stephen Skowronek makes the statement, "Little ward of dubious provocation figure prominently in the work of the great orthodox-innovators" (Skowronek 342). An analysis of the elements in this statement and of the idea of "orthodox-innovation," considering how this applies to the current war in Iraq and to the actions of George W. Bush in taking the U.S. into that war.

From the Paper
"As part of his analysis of presidential leadership and his development of the theory of political time, Stephen Skowronek makes the statement, "Little ward of dubious provocation figure prominently in the work of the great orthodox-innovators" (Skowronek 342). An analysis of the elements in this statement and of the idea of "orthodox-innovation," considering how this applies to the current war in Iraq and to the actions of George W. Bush in taking the U.S. into that war. This issue has been much argued since the start of that war and will continue to be discussed far into the future, not simply until the war ends but long after as historians and ..."

Tags:Skowronek, Middle, East, politics

Abstract
This paper details political time, secular time and the modern presidency theory in attempts to understand power and authority in executive leadership. The paper shows that a combination of the political time and secular time models is the best means to measure presidential leadership and provides a nuanced understanding of executive power structures. It explains that this method focuses on political relationships and cycles of political change in American history, utilizing contrast and comparison of smaller groupings to underline political achievement.

From the Paper
"The President of the United States of America is a position rendering vast and enduring debate regarding the leadership structure of the office and the service capabilities of the person who inhabits the office. The mission of this individual is to faithfully execute and uphold the laws defined by the Constitution and Congress, yet interpretation of this undertaking yields varying leadership in providing for the continuance of the executive office. A constant theme in all presidencies to date is the mandate of power and authority each president utilizes in office. Power is an automatic function the executive receives upon entering office. The resources available to the president, and the formal and informal actions the president undertakes define power. Authority is based in how this power is applied; the warrant president's create to use power. The challenge in this executive authority can be changed by agenda and time period, and is the underlying current in presidential leadership. Scholars use different models to understand this premise, including political time, secular time, and the modern presidency theory. Comprehension of each of these models is the best analysis in understanding presidential leadership."

Tags:politics, public, Constitution, Congress

Abstract
This paper looks at how, throughout the history of American politics, presidents have struggled to tread the fine line between a secular government and public faith softly. It discusses how civil religion shows up in political discourse, on the campaign trail, and most often in inaugural speeches. It explores how different American presidents have toyed with a civil religion during times of war in order to persuade the public to their viewpoint and justify war, and it focuses specifically on the Civil War, the Vietnam War, and the current war in Iraq. It also analyzes the impact that civil religion has had on American society and its roots.

From the Paper
"Although every presidency has used civil religion in a variety of ways, a few administrations have exemplified the use of a nondenominational national religion, especially those administrations that have dealt with America during times of war. Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, John Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson during the Vietnam War, and George W. Bush during the War in Iraq stand out among a crowded history of leaders who have used civil religion in an attempt to unite and console a nation in turmoil."

Tags:iraq, vietnam, abraham, lincoln, george, bush, kennedy, johnson

Abstract
In this article, the writer looks at how the election cycle restrains the President of the United States from pursuing bold economic policy initiatives. At the same time, the writer also reviews how the executive and legislative branches act as restraints upon each other. Finally, the writer explores how it is possible for elected officials to ignore the economic interests of millions of Americans who reside below the poverty line even though the nettlesome problem of poverty has been a subject of public debate for decades - if not generations. The writer concludes that politics is a rough terrain populated by many bickering interest groups and "players" and the access to the President of some of these groups is such that they can successfully thwart daring economic policies which might run counter to their interests even as those policies offer renewed hope to large segments of the American population.

Tags:political, constraints, policy

Abstract
This paper provides an essay that reviews two children's books on presidents of the U.S., Lucia Raatma's "John F. Kennedy" and Lisa de Mauro's "Time for Kids: Theodore Roosevelt: The Adventurous President," arguing adventure and courage are the primary defining qualities of Roosevelt and Kennedy respectively.

From the Paper
"In an era when Presidents are accused of infidelity in the Oval Office and of lying to the American public and Congress to engage in war, two children's books on former U.S. presidents offer a refreshing account of American Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy. In Lucia Raatma's series "Profile of the Presidents", the book "John F. Kennedy" offers a combination of the achievements and humanity of the President in both words and pictures."

Tags:Spanish American War, Bay of Pigs, Cuban Missile Crisis, PT109, government, politics

Abstract
This paper examines how Steven Kelman takes, as he says in the subtitle of his book "Making Public Policy", "A Hopeful View of American Government." It discusses how he notes how Americans have long been torn by conflicting attitudes toward their government, with pride on the one hand and cynicism because of government failures on the other. It analyzes how Kelman's belief is that the pride is the most justified and how he believes that the American government will generally do the right thing and even over time so problem areas do not remain. It looks at how he analyzes his ideas in terms of policy making as a political process, focusing on the federal government but including the state and local manifestations of the same processes.

From the Paper
"Kelman calls politics a framework for analysis, and any given policy can be analyzed in terms of the politics of the formation and implementation of that policy, just as politics serves as the framework against which all policy is formulated. Politics takes place in terms of and through institutions, but its is the participants who actually decide what policy to support, exercise power in the process, develop strategies to make their intentions come to pass, and in the end, combine the different pieces into political choice. While Kelman comes to certain broad conclusions, he also rightly notes, every political encounter is different."

Tags:politics, bureaucracy, congress, federal, president

Abstract
This research paper traces the evolution of American involvement in and international strategy toward Bosnia during the period beginning with the outbreak of war among indigenous forces there in early 1992 and continuing to the present time

From the Paper
"U.S. Involvement in Bosnia During the 1990s
This research paper traces the evolution of American involvement in and international strategy toward Bosnia during the period beginning with the outbreak of war among indigenous forces there in early 1992 and continuing to the present time.


Outline
1. 1991-1992. The United States failed to develop an effective international strategy for coping with the disintegration of Yugoslavia and the war in Bosnia in large part because after the Cold War, its senior policy makers during the Bush administration did not view the United States as having any vital national interests involved in that conflict and, was therefore, determined to leave the diplomatic initiative for its..."

Abstract
This paper examines the period between 1865 and 1940, focusing on the presidents who served during this time in the United States. While a total of 15 presidents are named, the writer believes that 4 of them were unsuccessful and are not remembered fondly by historians. This paper presents the reasons why Andrew Johnson, Grover Cleveland, William McKinley and Herbert Hoover are considered to be the unsuccessful presidents.

Contents:
Opening Question
Unsuccessful Presidents Identified? 1865 - 1940
Andrew Johnson
Grover Cleveland
William McKinley
Herbert Hoover
Political Characteristics
Political Party
Congressional Issues
Johnson's Problems with Congress
Cleveland's Problems with Congress
McKinley's Problems with Congress
Hoover's Problems with Congress
Keynesian Economics
Using it to Achieve Goals
Americans Unconcerned with Problems Outside of Borders.
Rural Country First
Disdain for Strong Leaders
Personal Patterns
Economic Issues
Concern for the Economy
Democratic Ideals
Changing Policy
Class Issues
Failing to Change

From the Paper
"When William McKinley became president in 1896, the country was just coming out of the economic depression of 1893. The Democrats wanted to issue silver coins freely. Foreign affairs became his focus when reports of hostilities in Cuba reached the United States. Newspaper reports prodded Congress to vote three resolutions tantamount to a declaration of war for the liberation and independence of Cuba. In the 100-day war that followed, the United States destroyed the Spanish fleet outside Santiago harbor in Cuba, seized Manila in the Philippines, and occupied Puerto Rico."

Tags:united, states, america, elections, congress, politics, cleveland, johnson, mckinley, hoover

Abstract
This paper examines the build-up of the political career of the sixth American president, John Quincy Adams. It looks at how he began his political career by being inspired by his father, also an American president. Also discusses the political environment at the time of his rule, which was from 1825 to 1829.

From the Paper
"When Adams ran again in 1824, he lost in both the popular and electoral votes (Wikipedia, 2004). However, none of the candidates were able to secure a majority of the electoral vote, thereby yuring the power over to the House of Representatives, which to the surprise of many chose Adams over rival Andrew Jackson. Adams served as President from March 4, 1825 to March 4, 1829. During this time, his major accomplishmnet was the development of a federal system of roads, canals, bridges, lighthouses, and universities. Adams remained president until Jackson, who defeated Adams in his campaign for re-election, replaced him."

Tags:andrew, jackson