Abstract
This paper examines the concept of presidential leadership and the theory of political time delineated in Stephen Skowronek's "The Politics Presidents Make". The idea of political time means first that the given president is situated at different points in the life-cycle of a given political regime and, second, that presidents stand in different relation to the dominant political regime and its "regime party." The paper also focuses on what Skowronek calls "orthodox-innovators", or leaders whose actions are strongly influenced by the ulterior motives of his regime. The paper considers how this applies to the current war in Iraq and to the actions of George W. Bush in taking the U.S. into that war. It concludes that this issue has been much argued since the start of that war and will continue to be discussed far into the future, not simply until the war ends but long after as historians and others seek to understand the rationale for this war.

Outline:
Introduction
Political Time
Political Regime
The Orthodox-Innovator
Iraq

From the Paper
"Skowronek identifies the orthodox-innovator as a "faithful son," meaning not a son of a political leader but a son of a political party, movement, or regime that shapes the faithful son's political leanings and career. These are also the presidents who are associated with "a resilient set of governmental commitments" (Skowronek 41). The presidents considered here all fit the mold, meaning James Monroe, James K. Polk, Theodore Roosevelt, Lyndon Johnson, George H.W. Bush, and George W. Bush. All emerged from a political tradition they could be expected to support and yet that they in part denied as they pursued their little wars, often in order to assert American power not just to other countries but domestically as well, supposedly correcting earlier failures to do so and thus affirming the strengths their followers want supported, or doing so to counter charges by the opposition of weakness. It is considered less surprising when a Republican president affirms American power by engaging in a military action, for instance, while a Democratic president might do so just to show that the view that Democratic leaders are not able to handle the need for a military response."

Tags: Gulf, War, political, regime

Abstract
The paper discusses Forrest McDonald's book, "The American Presidency: An Intellectual History", which provides an in-depth analysis of the presidency and serves as a useful tool for anyone interested in learning about the office of the president of the United States. The paper comments that McDonald offers a realistic view of the office of the presidency covering the history of the office from its inception, beginning with English law and constitutional custom, to the Clinton administration. The paper highlights that for history and political science enthusiasts and the novice wanting to learn more, this book makes learning about the presidency, understandable.

From the Paper
"The primary theme we find in the book is that the president of the United States is obligated to play the role of "king-surrogate" (459) even though this is not exactly what the framers of the Constitution had in mind. McDonald asserts that the presidency is essentially a monarchy in disguise. McDonald also maintains that the office has declined since George Washington and Thomas Jefferson with the exception of Ronald Reagan who, "like Jefferson, brought to the presidency a fully conceived set of goals" (342) that in domestic affairs "were mutasis mutandis, much the same as Jefferson's had been" 342). McDonald also favors Richard Nixon, who he predicts will be remembered as one of America's great presidents "depending upon the course of history takes in the future" (468). McDonald leaves us with the ultimate question concerning the presidency, which asks if the office has become a "troubled and somewhat troublesome institution" (479). This is a question that only time can answer but McDonald leaves us with much to ponder. McDonald also provides an interesting "Afterthoughts" section that offers his insight on the president, including how the president keeps up with everything that is going on in the country. Furthermore, he shows us the psychological and physical toll the presidency can have on an individual. "

Tags: psychological, physical, toll, political, science, ratification, dates

Abstract
This paper presents a review of "Ghosts of Mississippi", by Maryanne Vollers; "Sons of Mississippi", by Paul Hendrickson; "The White House Staff", by Bradley H. Patterson; and "The American Presidency", by Sidney M. Milkis and Michael Nelson. The first two books listed are about civil rights in the South and the second two are about the American presidency.

From the Paper
"Maryanne Vollers introduces her text by stating that Byron De La Beckwith was not an ordinary prisoner and he was not treated like one. The subject of Vollers' book is the murder of civil rights activist of Medgar Evers by Byron De La Beck and the determined efforts of Myrlie Evers to bring Beck to justice -- an effort that took quite literally decades despite the fact that it was well known that Beck was Evers' killer."

Tags: political science, history, civil rights, public administration, presidency

Abstract
This paper provides an examination of some of the factors that make a president great. The paper looks at certain moral and personality characteristics and also examines the evolution of the presidency over time. The paper also makes mention of the present roles and functions of the United States president and includes a literature review of the sources presented.

From the Paper
"There is arguably no public office anywhere in the world that presents the multiplicity of challenges and opportunities that the American presidency does. No presidency is the same; some presidents have had a greater influence in shaping policy and public opinions than others. Presidents such as FDR, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush, were all presidents who were skillful politicians and used the media and the presidency to their full advantage. The question tackled is what makes a President great. The writer believes that a President, who is charismatic, has a likeable personality, and who is able to make skillful use of the media to his advantage, will be able to shape public opinion and would eventually lead to a great and memorable presidency."

Tags: bush, greatness, presidency

Abstract
This paper uses the criteria established by Robert Dallek in his book "Hail to the Chief. The Making and Unmaking of American Presidents" to determine which presidents of the United States qualify as the top five. Citing Dallek's conclusion that the five characteristics found in the most effective presidents are vision, pragmatism, consensus, charisma and credibility, the paper assesses which presidents possess these qualities and concludes that Harry S. Truman, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush are the top five U.S. presidents ever.

From the Paper
"Dallek points out that the White House today is as removed from Washington's day as space travel is from the horse and buggy, and that the global responsibilities a president faces today actually dwarf those his counterpart encountered in the 1790's, as well as the president's impact on the economic and social life of the country. Because of nuclear weapons, electronic communications, and national and international responsibilities, presidents today are forced to think and act differently than earlier predecessors, however, the elements of compelling leadership have remained unchanged through the years."

Tags: presidential, greatness, american, historians, rate, failure, personality, character

Abstract
The American President is perceived as extremely powerful and also as constrained in a number of ways. This paper considers the actual power of an American President compared with the perceived power. It also compares the role of the American President to that of the British Prime Minister.

From the Paper
"It is certainly the case that American Presidents are viewed and indeed portrayed as powerful individuals. Part of this is due to the media's focus on the personality of presidents and presidential candidates at the expense of their policies and actual role. A President's influence in Washington relies on how he is perceived by the public - more so than a Prime Minister's, which depends more on the view of his cabinet and parliament, which is then adopted by he media - and so this public image is continuously cultivated by the President himself."

Tags: prime, minister, power, britain

Abstract
The paper looks at Forest McDonald's book, "The American Presidency", and how it addresses the shift in the conception of the American presidency from weak to quasi-monarchial as well as how the shift occurred. Additionally, the paper discusses NcDonald's philosophical methodology and explains why McDonald calls Reagan the greatest president since Jefferson. The paper concludes that the ultimate message of McDonald is that Congress and the populace should step aside and let those who know 'best' govern.

From the Paper
"According to historian and scholar Forest McDonald, The American Presidency was and is a unique institution. Although other nations have since developed elected executives called presidents, the American presidency has evolved along its own special course, because of the birth of America as a new nation without a long-standing tradition of previous history, monarchy or common law. Some of the Founding Fathers, particularly James Madison, were initially reluctant to invest the new executive office with much power, for fear of creating a new king. Madison, for example, wished to prohibit unilateral executive action in foreign affairs (238). This would, according to McDonald, have made it impossible for the United States to engage effectively as a nation on the world stage, although of course it would also have limited some of the military actions not officially declared 'wars' by Congress as well."

Tags: Madison, Constitution, Republican, Democrat, Reagan, Congress

Abstract
This paper examines Forrest McDonald's work, "The American Presidency: An Intellectual History." The paper discusses the content of the books and suggests that the historical review and analysis of the presidencies is thorough and detailed, and is an eye-opener for readers who are not intimately familiar with American history from the point of view of the Constitution and the presidency.

From the Paper
"Chapter 7 of McDonald's book takes readers through the intricate, bombastic and sometimes infamous moments of the Philadelphia convention during which the Constitution was hammered together by men from various parts of the colonies, all of them with their own agendas. Pages and pages of his book detail all the various proposals for how to keep the executive branch in check. They are too many and too involved to mention all of them in this paper, but interestingly, there were some delegates that wanted to create an executive who would be chosen "for life" (McDonald 168). Meanwhile McDonald uses very descriptive narrative to give readers a sense of what the dynamics were at the Philadelphia convention. Phrases like "rancor and confusion" (McDonald, 169) and "grumbling and expressions of disapproval" (McDonald, 178) and "minor tinkering" (178) offers more than a vague clue as to the tension in the room during various debates."

Tags: constitution, government, democracy

Abstract
Discusses the evolvement of the American President to the most powerful man in the world. Growth of the power of the executive branch & the federal government. New Constitutional Amendments. Refers to the Nixon presidency as the apex of the conflict between increasing national authority & growing presidential power. The Watergate Scandal & the restoration of the system of checks & balances by Congress. Relationahip between national authority & presidential power.

From the Paper
"In the United States of America, as the nation has grown and developed, so the power and influence of the national government has broadened in scope and magnitude. Simultaneously, the executive branch of the American government has evolved in dramatic fashion; the American President is recognized today as the most powerful man in the world. These two processes -- the increasing of national authority and the growth of presidential power -- have at times complemented one another and at times contradicted one another. Ultimately, these are trends that are precariously linked, and forever intertwined.

In the interest of protecting the individual citizen, the American system initially provided for basic sovereignty to..."

Abstract
This paper discusses E.J. Dionne's "Why Americans Hate Politics". It examines the author's explanation of why Americans are so disenchanted with politics and why they hold their politicians in such low esteem. Dionne believes this is the result of politics no longer being relevant to most Americans' daily lives. He believes that Liberals and Conservatives have to frame a compromise with each other to give voters real choices.

Abstract
This paper looks at how, throughout the history of American politics, presidents have struggled to tread the fine line between a secular government and public faith softly. It discusses how civil religion shows up in political discourse, on the campaign trail, and most often in inaugural speeches. It explores how different American presidents have toyed with a civil religion during times of war in order to persuade the public to their viewpoint and justify war, and it focuses specifically on the Civil War, the Vietnam War, and the current war in Iraq. It also analyzes the impact that civil religion has had on American society and its roots.

From the Paper
"Although every presidency has used civil religion in a variety of ways, a few administrations have exemplified the use of a nondenominational national religion, especially those administrations that have dealt with America during times of war. Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, John Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson during the Vietnam War, and George W. Bush during the War in Iraq stand out among a crowded history of leaders who have used civil religion in an attempt to unite and console a nation in turmoil."

Tags: iraq, vietnam, abraham, lincoln, george, bush, kennedy, johnson

Abstract
This paper details political time, secular time and the modern presidency theory in attempts to understand power and authority in executive leadership. The paper shows that a combination of the political time and secular time models is the best means to measure presidential leadership and provides a nuanced understanding of executive power structures. It explains that this method focuses on political relationships and cycles of political change in American history, utilizing contrast and comparison of smaller groupings to underline political achievement.

From the Paper
"The President of the United States of America is a position rendering vast and enduring debate regarding the leadership structure of the office and the service capabilities of the person who inhabits the office. The mission of this individual is to faithfully execute and uphold the laws defined by the Constitution and Congress, yet interpretation of this undertaking yields varying leadership in providing for the continuance of the executive office. A constant theme in all presidencies to date is the mandate of power and authority each president utilizes in office. Power is an automatic function the executive receives upon entering office. The resources available to the president, and the formal and informal actions the president undertakes define power. Authority is based in how this power is applied; the warrant president's create to use power. The challenge in this executive authority can be changed by agenda and time period, and is the underlying current in presidential leadership. Scholars use different models to understand this premise, including political time, secular time, and the modern presidency theory. Comprehension of each of these models is the best analysis in understanding presidential leadership."

Tags: politics, public, Constitution, Congress

Abstract
This paper presents political biographies of seven selected American presidents. In brief accounts, the paper highlights accomplishments, challenges and legacies of the presidents in their political career.

Abstract
This paper examines how the American presidency began with George Washington and the Articles of Confederation and how, under the Articles of Confederation, the Federal government, including the presidency, had very little power. It looks at how early presidents expanded the power of the Office of the President by their interpretation of the Constitution and examines how, over time, the presidents from Jackson to Nixon built up the Office of the President and expanded federal powers. It shows how the power of the presidency has ebbed and flowed over the years, with Congress taking action when it feels a president has gone too far and how the president's power to veto bills guarantees that Congress will have to work with the president to some extent as it passes laws.

From the Paper
"The United States Constitution was designed as a series of checks and balances. That is, the rights and powers of one branch were kept in check, or balance, by the rights of other branches. Thus Congress could pass laws, but the Supreme Court could declare them void because they were unconstitutional. The President could negotiate treaties, but they had to be approved by the Senate. After the Civil War, the issue of balance of power came to a head. Congress tried to gain more power, and President Andrew Jackson opposed them. The Congress responded by impeaching President Andrew. He missed being thrown out of office by one vote (WorldBook, 2002). The view through the 1800's remained that Congress held the bulk of governmental authority."

Tags: constitution, jackson, munroe, roosevelt, nixon, george, washington, congress

Abstract
"The American Presidency" is an exhibit at the National Museum of American History at the Smithsonian in Washington, D.C. This paper discusses the exhibit and shows its importance at conveying information of the presidency in American life, in American history and in the development of a new form of government with the Constitution. The author explains that the exhibit is a chance to see pictures of all 42 presidents, get a sense of their time, a sense of their place in history and an idea of some of their accomplishments. The exhibit conveys this as information, but through the various objects in the exhibit which came from the presidency of each man, the visitor can feel closer to these men as human beings by being in the presence of objects they may have touched and used. The paper also quotes from the booklet which accompanies the exhibition.

From the Paper
"The exhibit says much about the nature of that job--the problems faced, the responsibilities heeded, the legacy created, and the relationship of each man to the history of his time. Some of the objects in the exhibit take the visitor directly to the human being who held office, such as Abraham Lincoln's ink stand (most certainly not different from thousands of ink stands of the period, but with a different aura because of who used it), the military uniform worn by Eisenhower (which gives a good sense of the stature of the man in real terms), or President Grant's carriage. The first thing that strikes the visitor about these different objects is their normal size, for the image we have of these men and their actions is larger than life, while the objects they used are quite normal and remind us that they were only human beings after all."

Tags: Glorious, Burden, George, Washington, Abraham, Lincoln