Abstract
This paper examines affirmative action and its impact upon the wage gap found among various groups. The paper makes the assertion that while the initiative has met with some success, it is evident that various groups continue to lag behind. The paper looks at the advances that have taken place in recent decades as well as at the areas - mostly in enforcing compliance - where it appears affirmative action is not eliminating workplace discrimination; the paper also suggests that corporate cultures need to change. Finally, the paper concludes by offering a solution to the enforcement issues plaguing affirmative action in America.

Tags:affirmative, action, wages

Abstract
The paper argues that affirmative action has had a significant positive effect on the lives of million of African Americans and women, and it represents social policy at its finest and most effective, for it has enabled millions of African Americans and women to reach their full potential in America's workplaces and universities. The paper asserts that although affirmative action has been successful in reducing the impact of racial and gender discrimination, much more progress needs to be achieved in order to ensure fundamental fairness for all, for race and gender discrimination continue to exist at all levels of business and education in the United States.

From the Paper
"Affirmative Action has had a significant positive effect on the lives of millions of African Americans and women. It represents social policy at its finest and most effective, for it has enabled millions of African Americans and women to reach their full potential in America's workplaces and universities. Although affirmative action has been successful in reducing the impact of racial and gender discrimination, much more progress needs..."

Tags:affirmative, action, policies

Abstract
This paper discusses Affirmative Action and ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) in terms of the oppression of women and the lack of access provided to the disabled in America.

From the Paper
"From the earliest times, women have held a lower place in society than men. Men had the right to vote long before women did, and women down through the centuries were largely relegated to performing menial chores while men held office, led countries and conducted important business. Men have had superior educational opportunities, while in many cultures women remain uneducated. Until the past thirty to forty years in the United States, few professionals such as doctors and lawyers were women. Not surprisingly..."

Tags:Affirmative Action, ADA, discrimination, gender, women, disabled

Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss, and analyze the book "When Affirmative Action was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America" by Ira Katznelson. Specifically the paper contains a comprehensive summary of the text. The paper looks at how the book follows the history of affirmative action and the treatment of blacks in American society at a time when Civil Rights were finally available. The paper also discusses how the book indicates how the time leading up to Civil Rights was a time of turmoil in the country and especially in the black community, as they were disenfranchised from the rest of America, especially after the end of the Second World War.

From the Paper
"One of the key issues in this understanding of white affirmative action is how the Southern Congressional Democrats manipulated the system, managed to keep laws from applying to their Southern states, and monopolized the political system to keep affirmative action from affecting and improving the lives of their black citizens. The author continues, "Over and over, the bureaucrats who were handed authority by Congress used their capacity to shield the southern system from challenge and disruption" (Katznelson, 2005, p. 23). They wanted to keep their Jim Crow laws in place, and the Southern Negroes in their place, and the rest of Congress and the citizenry largely ignored their posturing. The author shows how these programs affected whites and largely whites only, making the origins of affirmative action in the white community, something that is still largely ignored even today."

Tags:civil, rights, war, blacks, racism

Abstract
The paper explores the literature on affirmative action with an intent to identify the arguments against it and to illustrate that affirmative action is a problematic and unconstitutional approach to addressing America's issues of cultural racism. The paper looks at several landmark decisions and discusses how under poor leadership, affirmative action can actually have the impact of damaging the cause for equality, drawing the criticism of political groups on both sides of the racial spectrum. The paper reaches the conclusion that it remains unclear if the initiatives of affirmative action both better the situations of their subjects and remain within the bounds of Constitutional law.

From the Paper
"In 2000, Gratz v Bollinger began the long process of defending the Constitutionality of Affirmative Action as a factor in shaping admission criteria for potential students. Based on the concept that ethnic diversity could be considered a suitable goal for a university in selecting the members of its student body, a federal court found in favor of the University's reliance upon the practice. After being nullified the following year by a contrary decision in Grutter v Bollinger, then subsequently overturned once again on appeal, the University's policy was ultimately vindicated in the United States Supreme Court. In a landmark 5-4 decision, the highest court upheld "the University of Michigan Law School's policy, ruling that race can be one of many factors considered by colleges when selecting their students because it furthers 'a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body.'" (Brunner, 1) This 2003 determination stands as the currently resonating federal stance on the concept of Affirmative Action. This is in spite of the progress which a number of individual states have had in banning the use of affirmative action either in school admissions or job placement. California and Washington are two examples of states which during the 1990's enacted legislative prohibitions to the use of race, ethnicity, religion or gender in making employment or educational decisions."

Tags:racism, reverse-discrimination, Constitution, inequality

Abstract
The paper provides an overview of affirmative action, one of the strongest officially sanctioned instruments for eroding the continued imbalance of opportunity for black and white students in the United States. The paper examines the literature pertaining to affirmative action and highlights the value of this practice. The paper identifies the arguments against it but ultimately illustrates that affirmative action remains necessary today. The paper shows how with the proper implementation, affirmative action can be an extremely effective channel to providing access to education and employment for America's racially disadvantaged.

From the Paper
"Though affirmative action is still a controversial issue, it is nothing new. Debates can still be heard on this subject as it inundates news broadcasts, radio airways and printed materials. Currently you can find debates that are focused on the use of affirmative action in higher education as a result of recent judicial inquiries into the fairness and necessity of the practice. Those that are for affirmative action argue that its implementation is more than necessary to ensure that minorities receive equal opportunity. Opponents of affirmative action contend that the practice is not necessary because it does not promote equality; in fact those against affirmative action argue that it does not help minorities but rather degrades them. Some opponents even argue that affirmative action sends minorities the message that they can only succeed if they are given extra benefits; which results, in damaging their cultural credibility and collective advancement.."

Tags:education, employment, racism, ethnicity, minorities, opportunities

Abstract
This paper traces the history, origins and evolution of the Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity Acts as well as the opposition to such laws. The paper also looks at which agencies enforce and control the Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity Acts and how they are enforced. Furthermore, the paper examines both affirmative action and equal opportunity litigation, the outcomes of the litigation and the repercussions of those outcomes. Finally, the paper discusses the effects of the Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity Acts on America and how minorities feel when they receive unequal treatment.

From the Paper
"The policies of affirmative action aiming at assisting the black Americans are of recent origin. The policies have sought its origin to varied sources like legal structure, executive instructions, and court rulings. It was during the last three decades that these policies were being developed and they have become debatable as well. (Legal History) During the last three decades of the nineteenth century, a large number of African-Americans officiated in important public posts inclusive of two senators and 20 members in the House. However withdrawal of sustenance for reconstruction by the federal government in the late nineteenth century, the benefits extended to African Americans were wiped out and substituted by a system of legal segregation such as that of Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans. (Affirmative Action: Background)"

Tags:segrationist, separate, but, equal, plessy, v., ferguson, races, civil, rights, act, discrimination

Abstract
The paper considers the contention of critics of affirmative action that affirmative action programs have gone too far to remedy the historical injustices against African-Americans. The paper reveals the bias towards whites in higher-paying and higher-prestige management and professional jobs and argues that discrimination and racial disadvantage are still very much a part of American society. The paper emphasizes that whites still experience privilege and concludes that while affirmative action may not be the perfect solution to the problem of racial discrimination in America, it is the best solution that exists at this time.

Outline:
Introduction
History of Affirmative Action
Education Issues Related to African Americans
Getting a Job
Have We Gone Too Far?

From the Paper
"The end of legally sanctioned racial segregation in the 1950s and 1960s was a major step in the direction of racial equality. However, as had been the case with the end of slavery, the removal of formal oppression did not eliminate customary and private discrimination. As a result, the federal government had to take certain steps to ensure that African Americans were no longer being discriminated against. Moreover, because some effects of past discrimination, such as inferior early education, made African Americans less desirable candidates according to some objective criteria, the government instituted a system of preferences. At the time, there was simply no other way to end the vestiges of injustice. However, many people argue that the time for affirmative action has past, and that, since the playing field is now level, it now confers an unfair advantage on African Americans."

Tags:discrimination, race, disadvantage, education, jobs

Abstract
Although affirmative action began as a means to bring segregation to an end, adversely, it became a means to end discrimination with discrimination. This paper argues that modern affirmative action causes more harm than good and creates tension in the work force, as well as America's established educational institutions. It argues that, for America to become a truly colorblind nation, it must wipe the slate clean and operate on the ethical merit system, instead of preferential treatment for people who no longer need it.

From the Paper
"It is unbelievably hard to create a level playing field with the colorful history that America possesses. It is not legitimate to create one policy to appease an agitated nation by ending discrimination with reverse discrimination. Affirmative Action implicitly advocates reverse discrimination against white males and makes itself morally unacceptable by advocating that two wrongs make a right. In hindsight, reparations would have been a better solution to the problem. Giving high-level jobs to people under qualified for the positions has seemingly nothing to do with repairing past injustices."

Tags:prejudice, racism, Lynden, Johnson

Abstract
This paper examines affirmative action which was introduced in order to make things in America 'more equal' for everyone. This paper discusses the ramifications of the affirmative action programs with a view towards understanding the rationale behind the law and its effects on individuals in the workplace. A summary of the research is provided in the conclusion.

From the Paper
"The young woman was proud of her college transcript: she had studied hard and had consistently earned outstanding marks. Further, she had participated in a number of extracurricular activities and had been the president of her graduating class. When she applied to the company of his choice, however, she was passed over in favor of a minority applicant with similar credentials in a process which has become known as "reverse discrimination." The history of affirmative action in the United States is replete with examples such as this, and its effect on the morale of employees in the workplace has been significant."

Tags:blacks, equality, race, relations, religion, civil, rights