Abstract
This paper provides a review and discussion of the scholarly and peer-reviewed literature concerning steroid use among amateur and professional athletes and the legal implications thereof, followed by an analysis of the salient issues.

Contents:
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Background and Overview
Effects of Steroids
Incidence of Use
Analysis of Legal Issues and Controversies and Reactions
Conclusion

From the Paper
"In 1976, amateur athletes were tested for prohibited substances at the Olympic Games in Montreal and again at the 1983 Pan American Games in Caracas, Venezuela; the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) banned anabolic steroids in 1973 and began random testing of student- athletes for performance-enhancing substances and recreational drugs in 1986. (Allison et al., 2003). Drug testing originally took place only at Division I football bowl games, and at some NCAA championships; however, since 1990, football players in Divisions I-A, I-AA, and II, as well as Division I indoor and outdoor track and field athletes, have been subject to drug testing all year long. Furthermore, Allison and his colleagues report that all NCAA student- athletes are subject to drug testing at NCAA championship events and at post-season bowl games (NCAA, 1998). Not surprisingly, the use of such drugs has attracted attention from those who would seek to gain a competitive edge over their peers as well as those who would attempt to discourage such usage. To better understand the rationale behind such efforts, the general effects of steroids are discussed further below."

Tags:performance-enhancing, drugs, competition, anabolic, Amateur, Athletic, Federation, International, Olympic, Committee

Abstract
This paper discusses the history of the Amateur Sports Integrity Act. The paper chronicles the act's introduction in the Senate, the debate over it, and its ultimate failure to be passed into law.

From the Paper
"Senator McCain sponsored a bill called the Amateur Sports Integrity Act. This bill received approval from the Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation in May of ... to be scheduled for a hearing and a vote in the United States Senate. The bill was re-introduced in the House..."

Tags:Amateur Sports Integrity Act, NCAA, Point shaving, amateur athletics, Senator McCain, gambling, Internet gambling, student-athletes, legal gambling, Nevada sports book

Abstract
In this article, the writer first looks at the amateur status of college athletes and discusses how they are forbidden from profiting from their performances. The writer also discusses the early departure of college athletes for professional leagues. Further, the writer examines the hypocrisy of a system that prohibits student athletes, many of whom devote more than a full-time workweek to their sport outside of classes, from being compensated for their efforts outside of free school-related items like tuition and books. The writer points out that the college system has become inundated with corruption regarding payments and perks offered to players, more and more athletes are electing to skip college or at least a year of it altogether in favor of going professional, and demands on athletes are becoming more and more time-consuming and stringent. The writer maintains that permitting athletes to be paid for performance could alleviate all of these issues as well as help preserve what traditionalists refer to as the "purity" of the college game.

From the Paper
"The first of these issues is the "amateur status" of college athletes; they are forbidden from profiting for their performances. Despite this, many universities sign foreign players who may have been paid for performance in their native countries. This issue could be completely averted if the NCAA were to switch to a pay-for-play system that basis players' eligibility on their talent and ability rather than their salary history. Resources spent verifying amateur status and payment sources could be spent where they rightly belong--benefiting the student athletes who make up these programs."

Tags:students, athletes, professional, players

Abstract
The South Dakota High School Athletic Association (SDHAA) states that "a transfer /residency requirement assists in the prevention of students changing schools in conjunction with the change of athletic season for athletic purposes" ("Eligibility" 3). The handbook for SDHAA goes on to say that should such transfers be allowed recruitment would be negatively impacted, and the "opportunity for undue influence" would exist among individuals that stood to "benefit from a students athletes prowess" ("Eligibility" 3). In addition to these purposes of the transfer/recruitment stipulation for the school, the SDHSAA specifies that there is a need for the regulation in order to ensure that only those students who are actual residents of the district and that have the right to participate in athletics at the school in question are involved in sports ("Eligibility" 3). Consequently, students must provide evidence that their legal guardian is a resident of the district before the student can be allowed to transfer and participate in high school athletics. In accomplishing this goal the school ensures that high school sports remain "amateur" in nature and that "stability and harmony among member schools" is maintained ("Eligibility" 3).

From the Paper
Transfer Students and High School Athletics The South Dakota High School Athletic Association (SDHAA) states that "a transfer /residency requirement assists in the prevention of students changing schools in conjunction with the change of athletic season for athletic purposes" ("Eligibility" 3). The handbook for SDHAA goes on to say that should such transfers be allowed recruitment would be negatively impacted, and the "opportunity for undue influence" would exist among individuals that stood to "benefit from a students athletes prowess" ("Eligibility" 3). In addition to these purposes of the transfer/recruitment stipulation for the school, the SDHSAA specifies that

Tags:edu, high, school

Abstract
This paper presents the argument that athletes should be banned when they are tested positive for substance abuse. The discussion covers amateur sports as well as professional sports, for the problem is universal.

Abstract
Using Jeff Benedict's "Public Heroes,Private Felons", this paper discusses the issue of athletes and rape and sexual violence against women. The paper explains Benedict's thesis that the glorification of sports heroes sends a message to them that their behavior will be tolerated.

From the Paper
"Jeff Benedict's text "Public Heroes, Private Felons: Athletes and Crimes Against Women" is an expose of the sordid underworld in which an unfortunately significant number of amateur and professional athletes engage in sexual assaults, rape and other forms of violence against women. Benedict makes the point that the celebrity of these athletes and, in the case of professionals, their wealth, makes possible a lifestyle that is at best rampantly permissive and at worst criminal, at least with respect to the maltreatment of..."

Tags:athletes, rape, sexual violence, women

From the Paper
"The relatively new science of nutrition is taking on a much larger role in athletics today. The current fitness and health food craze has dramatized the potential danger poor nutrition can have on performance. The purpose of this report will be to discuss the nutritional needs of athletes, both professional and amateur. Included in the study will be a look at the latest information on elements of nutrition such as vitamin needs, diets and liquid requirements.

The term "nutrition" describes the method by which materials from the environment are consumed in order to provide the nutrients and energy necessary to support a healthy body. Nutrients, comprised of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, vitamins, minerals, trace elements, dietary fiber and water, are found in varying quantities in all foods. No one food ... "

Abstract
The paper relates that Canada's amateur athletes face considerable financial pressures in their pursuit of excellence, and recently, some Canadian female athletes have adopted a fundraising strategy of selling calendars featuring images of themselves in revealing and/or sexually provocative poses. This report argues that this trend is counterproductive and damaging to the image of female athletics. Key points include: the broader cultural context regarding female images; impacts upon young girls; and reinforcement of existing sexism in sports today. It is recommended that a media campaign be initiated to raise the profile of female amateur sport and eliminate the need for such a strategy.

From the Paper
"Reporting to: Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women in Sport by Consultant to the Ontario Ministry of Health Promotion. Abstract: Canada's amateur athletes face considerable financial pressures in their pursuit of excellence. Recently, some Canadian female athletes have adopted a fundraising strategy of selling calendars featuring images of..."

Tags:women, bodies, sport

Abstract
This paper is written about C. H. Gissendanner. He, primarily, opines that the gender separatism and the distinction between competitive sport and the ideal of femininity as espoused by the Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation in 1923 did not hold ground with the African-American communities.

Abstract
This paper explains that the big business environment surrounding student athletes is a significant transformation from the athletics of 1905, when the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) ruled that student athletes should not be paid so that they can fulfill the amateur criteria for student athletics competition. The author states that student athletes are exploited because of the failure of universities to educate them and because of all the time they must spend practicing, traveling and playing the game. The paper suggests a graduated salary cap based on college completion provided by professional sports organizations, which will help the professional sports leagues, colleges and student-athletes.

Table of Contents:
Background
Introduction
Arguments In Favor Of Paying Student Athletes
Conclusion

From the Paper
"People in favor of payment to student athletes inquire as to why the NCAA, many coaches, and administrators get huge amount of money and yet for the student athletes the payment is restricted to athletic scholarship. One of the supporting arguments for paying student athletes is that by paying student athletes properly the unlawful methods of payments would reduce. Another argument in favor of student athletes is that that the scholarship given to the student athletes is not enough and it does not cover all costs related to attending college."

Tags:ncaa scholarships exploitation revenue, illegal payments