Abstract The paper researches the degree to which pure altruism, untainted by the selfish issues of group identity or personal gain, may indeed exist. The paper discusses the difficulty in attempting a definition of altruism and illustrates the differences between practical altruism and pure altruism. The paper looks at human activity towards animals and contends that we are not being altruistic for alternative reasons. The paper maintains that there is a uniquely inexplicable altruism at work present in those who have dedicated their lives to volunteering with animal rescue, caring for sick or injured animals, or otherwise sacrificing personal time, money and effort for animals.
Outline:
Introduction
Literature Review
Research Design
From the Paper "The recent events with Hurricane Katrina sparked a nation-wide charitable reaction. Individuals and private organizations rushed to the rescue with a speed that put the tax-payer supported local and national governments to shame. While systems specifically designed to serve and protect their citizens struggled to do so, thousands of altruistic individuals moved immediately to the rescue. People across the country opened their hearts to those displaced by the hurricane in a truly spectacular way, many times crossing the usual borders of race and socioeconomic status to volunteer their efforts and their money."
Abstract This paper discusses altruism and some of the sociological theories that are used to explain acts of altruism. The paper maintains that only the social-cognitive theory of altruism can explain why there are so many examples of extreme, yet commonly shared moments of altruism, where people risk their lives to help others, as well as examples of people in the same society that show extreme selfishness. The paper discusses the firefighters and citizens that risked their lives to save strangers in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11th in New York City as examples of altruism and the lack of aid given victims of Hurricane Katrina as an example of selfishness. Social-cognitive theory is used to explain both types of responses.
From the Paper "Philosopher Peter Unger points out that while most people would argue that it is a moral obligation for a person to jump into a river and muddy their clothes to save a drowning child, if they are physically capable of doing so, millions refuse to give to charity. "The Envelope. In your mail, there's something from UNICEF. After reading it through you correctly believe that, unless you soon send in a check for $100, then, instead of each living many more years, over thirty more children will die soon". But people throw the UNICEF envelope out and buy a new pair of shoes instead."
Abstract This paper examines, through collected evidence, whether or not altruism can occur under the premise of evolutionary biology. It explains what evolutionary biology is and then explains the concept of altruism. It then goes on to explain why altruism is a paradox for evolutionary biology. The paper presents theories on altruism in an attempt to explain and minimize this paradox.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Background
Methods
Discussion
From the Paper "There are many different results that are possible within this experiment. First, the expected result is that the majority of individuals will answer that they would act altruistically. However, they could act altruistically in some cases, as when they are giving change back to others, but selfishly when it comes to saving a drowning person and risking their own lives. Another scenario is that they could act selfishly when they are in the room by themselves, but when they are doing so in conjunction with someone else, they might be motivated by the visual sign of someone else to be altruistic. I argue that in most cases individuals will be altruistic and that they are altruistic because it is a reciprocated trait. When it comes to the questions of whether they would act altruistically knowing that the other person would not do the same. I believe the majority of individuals will still act altruistically. Although this result might differ from person to person."
Abstract This paper explains that reciprocal altruism is a feature of socialization based on a system of reward and punishment. The author points out that reciprocal altruism appears to be an adaptive human behavior because it occurs in situations far beyond kinship and even in situations that do not result in an immediate reward for the altruistic act. The paper relates that altruism can be evaluated in terms of a cost-benefit analysis in that the altruistic act is a risk with potential or actual costs, which are weighted against the benefits of the altruistic act both for the recipient and the actor.
From the Paper "Reciprocal altruism can be conveniently framed in terms of game theory and the "Prisoner's Dilemma". The "Prisoner's Dilemma" accounts for the obvious complexity involved in the evolution and development of cooperative behavior in human societies. Participants base their decisions to cooperate on selfish motives, a "tit for tat system". However, participants know that cooperation may result in benefits greater than the costs involved. An investment metaphor also works: individuals invest in altruism to the extent they can bank on receiving returns."
Abstract This paper explains that altruism can be motivated by an incredible variety of different factors, including empathy, guilt, heredity, childhood experience and a need for self-actualization. The author points out that altruism also can be viewed from an evolutionary perspective in which natural selection most likely favored reciprocal altruism. The paper asserts that, through all the deterministic factors that shape altruism, human beings still have some capacity to freely choose to love and care for another human being simply because they recognize the common humanity that we all share.
From the Paper "Unfortunately, altruism and empathy are often limited by our inability to recognize ourselves in those who are different from us. For example, people in Western countries became much more interested in donating money to the Southeast Asian tsunami relief efforts only after reports of Western tourists who had been affected by the disaster began to surface. Although we should be able to empathize with people based solely on the emotions we all share, people tend to feel the need to identify with a person in some other way before they experience empathy on a level deep enough to create altruism."
Abstract This paper discusses the prevailing theories of altruism and attempts to develop a better contextual understanding of its core concepts. It discusses whether altruism fits into evolutionary biology and shows how altruism helps us understand how to create greater cohesiveness in society as well as encourage pro-social behavior.
From the Paper "Understand these evolutionary theories become crucial on a societal level to leverage the altruistic intent and evolutionary instincts within human beings. Societies and leaders need to understand that mutual altruism is the only way for the improvement of the group and the survival of the individual within the group context. By leveraging the knowledge of reciprocal altruism, leaders can create a convincing argument for why it is imperative for everyone to become active members of society. Kinship selection also helps in our understanding of group activity; leaders can utilize this theory to articulate a vision for the needs of a strong and interconnected community. Human beings as evolutionary creatures have highly evolved instincts for altruism. Perhaps one of the reasons that we have survived so long and past the prime of many other animals is our sense of altruism. Therefore to understand how altruism can help on a communal level, one only has to look at the sacrifices each individual makes in every aspect of community growth."
Abstract This paper presents an examination of the phenomenon of "altruism" among humans and animals. Altruism is defined as behavior by an organism that may be to its disadvantage but is to the advantage of others of its kind. The question of why organisms behave in this manner is the focus of this paper. Various research works in this field are detailed, shedding light on why altruistic behavior is manifested in the animal kingdom and why altruistic behavior is undertaken intentionally in the human world.
From the Paper "The subject has been much studied to ascertain why animals and humans alike behave in an altruistic fashion, given the selfish power of the genetic predisposition toward self-protection. Research has been conducted to identify behaviors which might be considered altruistic and then to determine whether they are truly altruistic or instead offer some benefit to the organism that may not be readily apparent. Different ethical theories involve differing procedures, implications, and justifications for solving moral dilemmas. A moral dilemma occurs when an individual has to face a choice between two different ethical solutions, solutions that are contradictory. Our society depends on a sense of morality as part of the normative structure of the citizenry, and the normative structure is what we accept as a minimum of shared understanding of what is moral, serving thus as a guide to our behavior and to our judgment about the behavior of others. A moral dilemma tests our definitions and our resolve to find ways of balancing competing interests. Altruistic behavior in some ways challenges this structure by being behavior without evident reward, though it may be an example of a normative behavior. Some theorists consider altruism as having a genetic basis, while others see it as a social construct and as a norm imposed by society. Still others consider the psychological implications for such behavior seek reasons for altruistic behavior in human psychology."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the question of whether altruism is gender influenced. According to the paper, an understanding of how gender impacts altruism would not only give us a greater understanding of how humans work, but greater insight into the difference in rationalization between men and women.
From the Paper "The primary material necessary for this test is the principle questionnaire given to participants. The questionnaire are given in two different groupings that will create a test variable. The two versions of the test will provide the same scenario where the primary test is how the test subject reacts to the given scenario. However, in one version of the test the scenario will be elaborative, providing details of the life and intimate thoughts of the hypothetical victim, concluding with the situation that demands altruism. In the other version, no background information is presented, and a neutral tone is used to describe the same situation. Another key resource is the use of quarantined environment to take this test and at the same time reduce as much as possible outside influences. The use of randomized testing is imperative and therefore an isolated classroom where only one student is allowed to take the test at any given time is the ideal parameter. "
Tags: questionnaire, material, male, female, gender, research
This paper examines the article entitled "The Significance of Affirmative Action for the Souls of White Folk: Further Implications of a Helping Model" by the authors Anthony R. Prakanis and Marlene E. Turner.
Abstract The paper explores the effects of racism on racists, through the analysis of the article "The Significance of Affirmative Action for the Souls of White Folk: Further Implications of a Helping Model," by the authors Prakanis and Turner. The paper intelligently investigates the psychological concept of ?democratic altruism?. It views democratically altruistic individuals have a sense of social responsibility, a sense of emotional empathy, and a sense of being included in their society. The paper layouts out the goals of affirmative action as a fundamental principle of American society in countering the lingering perceptions of racial inferiority in the American mindset.
From the Paper "In their article entitled ?The Significance of Affirmative Action for the Souls of White Folk: Further Implications of a Helping Model,? the authors Anthony R. Prakanis and Marlene E. Turner discuss a psychological concept referred to as ?democratic altruism.? The authors examine the effects of racism on racists. They examine how the concept of "democratic altruism" can be healing to both the perpetrators and the victims of racism, and can be healing to society as a whole. They then go on to explain how why Affirmative Action, often looked at as only benefiting minorities, can also be of aid to the whole of society."
Abstract This paper explores the nature of reciprocal altruism and how and why there are social benefits despite the presence of risk in this type of behavior.
Abstract This paper discusses and assesses whether there is a relationship between gender and altruism. The paper defines altruism and discusses the results of a survey conducted to determine if any differences exist between males and females tendency to perform altruistic acts. It concludes that independent t-test results from the data showed that generally, there is no established significant relationship between gender of the individual and his/her propensity to commit acts of altruism.
From the Paper "The feeling of being "at one with the other" is an important concept that must be taken into consideration in understanding altruism. What the findings showed is that altruism is best assessed not by the degree of help that one gives to the other, nor the feeling of empathy that is generated from the situation or scenario presented. The concept of oneness is found to be significant with the assessment of altruistic behavior (Maner et. al., 2002:1605). In the scenarios mentioned earlier, which yielded the highest and lowest mean score responses from both male and female respondents, the feeling of "oneness" is evident in the car scenarios, since all respondents felt positively and negatively for the "jumpstart" and "flat tire" scenarios, respectively."
Abstract The paper compares the attribution theory and the altruism and the bystander effect theory, which are both concerned about influences on behavior. The paper explains how the attribution theory is basically concerned with how other people as observers see the behavior, while the bystander effect theory focuses on the bystander who acts or who does not act. The paper shows how although these two theories are very different, they can be used together.
Outline:
Introduction
Attribution Theory
Altruism and the Bystander Effect Theory
Attribution Theory and Bystander Effect Theory Compared
Strengths and Weaknesses
Conclusion
From the Paper "Attribution refers to assumptions about why people behave as they do (Rathus, 2007). Attribution is a matter of looking at other people's motives and traits for explanations of their behavior. There are two types of attribution. The first is dispositional attribution and sees people's behavior in terms of their personality and of these people having free will. The second type is situational attribution which sees human behavior as resulting from social factors (Rathus, 2007). In our society, people usually blame the person instead of social conditions so that dispositional attribution is the most common form."
Abstract This paper explains ethical egoism as the belief that it is morally right for an action to wholly fulfill an individual's self-interest. The paper points out the weakness of this philosophy but also shows how altruism can contribute to the strength of the theory since an individual may perceive further reward for helping another. The paper then turns to psychological egoism where it is not enough that an activity is in one's self-interest; the individual must also desire to perform that activity. The paper shows how psychological egoism has no allowance for altruism and this poses a severe limitation for psychological egoism. The paper also points out the difference between self-interest and selfishness and explains why the former is a tenant of egoism while the latter falls out-of-line with egoism.
From the Paper "In the philosophy of ethical egoism, an action can be considered morally right if it maximizes and individual's self interest. Naturally, this is at odds with other moral theories that place a greater emphasis on altruism. Under the philosophy of ethical egoism, it would seem that an individual should not engage in any activity that represents cost to the individual even if it results in great gain to another. For example, why attempt to rescue a person who is about to fall off of a cliff if it represents a risk, however small, of tumbling off themselves This is incorrect, however, as it falls into the mistake of assuming that self interest and self centeredness are the same thing. Rather, an ethical egoist would consider the benefit to be gained by rescuing a person from a cliff."
Abstract This paper provides a proposal for a research experiment designed to assess evidence of "altruism" or "responsibility" towards homeless persons. In this paper, the author describes a background for the research, a purpose, including a hypothesis, a method for conducting the research and a description of the relevant variables for evaluating the research results. This proposal concludes with predictions and a conclusion. This is a research proposal; thus, research results are not available in this paper.
Abstract This paper examines how the impact that personality has on the ability to forgive has been a topic of much debate for many years and how many experts believe that certain personality traits can make an individual more susceptible to forgiveness. The investigation explores the type of research that has been done and what is currently being studied in this subject area.
Outline
Importance of Forgiveness
Forgiveness and Personality (Current Studies)
Agreeableness: Empathy and Altruism Emotionally Stable
Religion and Spirituality
Personalities and Forgiveness (Future Studies)
Discussion and Conclusion
From the Paper "According to the Journal of Mental Health Counseling, Forgiveness plays an important role in ensuring the mental stability of individuals. The journal reports that people that practice forgivenss are able to improve their well being and have more meaningful interpersonal relationships. Much of the scientific literature pertaining to the subject of forgiveness indicates that practicing forgiveness can result in less guilt, anxiety, anger and remorse of fear. (Harrington et al 2000) Harrington et al (2000) also reports, that the positive impact of forgiveness can be found amongst large and diverse populations that contain everyone from incest survivors to the families of individuals that have been murdered. (Harrington et al 2000)"
