Abstract
The paper shows that fuel cells offer tremendous promise and potential as an energy source. Among topics covered in this paper include: How fuel cells operate, why they are cleaner than a combustion powered engine and the research that is currently being conducted to advance this technology. The paper also lays out the roles the federal government, automakers, and oil companies are playing in investing in fuel technology. It also discusses the problems that need to be overcome in order for the use of fuel cells to meet their full potential as an energy source.

From the Paper
"In summary once the fuel cell market begins to take off, the impact can snowball. Using hydrogen to combine such renewable energy sources with highly efficient fuel cell cars would impact many industries such as the automobile, oil, electricity and natural gas. Furthermore, an added benefit of fuel cell will be the elimination of carbon dioxide that are produced by gas powered engines, instead the only by product produced here would be water. In fact this water will be safe enough to drink because it will be pure. Research will continue to advance the potential of fuel cell as a dependable long term energy source."

Tags:conservation, environment, hydrogen, IFC, PEM, Fuels, Cells

Abstract
This paper examines how the energy crisis that plagues many American cities has been at the center of much debate. It looks at information about current energy sources, such as hydroelectricity, wind energy, nuclear energy, and fossil fuel. The discussion also covers alternative energy sources, such as solar energy, hydrogen energy, and biomass energy. It seeks to explain the expense, transportation, production, and storage of these energy sources and focuses on issues of practicality, such as current availability and renewal. It also discusses efficiency and environmental ramifications.

Outline
Introduction
Current Forms of Energy
Hydroelectricity
Wind Energy
Nuclear Energy
Fossil Fuel
Alternative forms of Energy
Solar Energy
Hydrogen Energy
Biomass energy
Efficiency, Practicality and Environmental Ramifications
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Wind Energy is also a current source of electricity for millions of people. (Blackburn, 1987) Utilities can use the energy from the wind to propel vessels or to pump water. (Blackburn, 1987) wind energy is rather inexpensive especially in remote areas. (Blackburn, 1987) According to an article in the Geographical Review, wind energy is extremely efficient and is now the fastest growing source of renewable energy. (Pasqualetti 2000) Blackburn (1987) asserts that wind energy can produce energy for a cost of 12-15? per kilowatt hour before tax benefits come into consideration. (Blackburn, 1987)"

Tags:hydrogen, solar, biomass, fossil, fuel, nuclear, hydroelectricity

Abstract
This paper explores the progress of ethanol as a fuel derived from renewable crops. It particularly focuses on cellulosic ethanol, which can be produced from agricultural, municipal and forestry waste, corn stalks, sawdust and waste paper. The paper discusses all of these options, as well as the viability of being able to produce enough to significantly reduce the United States dependence on foreign oil.

Table of Contents:
History of Ethanol
Current Uses of Ethanol
Arguments For and Against Ethanol as a Major Alternative Fuel
Retooling for Ethanol
Conclusion

From the Paper
"United States would require an "area of energy crops as large as the current area of food crops grown in the United States. Additional land use of this magnitude would be staggering and contentious" (p. 18). According to Haroon S. Kheshgi, an engineer for EXXonMobil Research, nothing will replace petroleum because to run an average U. S. car with corn-derived ethanol for a year would require 14 acres of cropland--about nine times more land than is needed to feed one person the same length of time. Aside from the fact that Kheshgi is invested in the oil industry, this argument, does not consider the use of agricultural waste products as the source or use of the by-products of distilling ethanol. If the land were still used to grow food, and the wastes were used for ethanol, benefits to the environment would be great. Also, if hydrogen power is the ultimate goal, ethanol could be "part of a transition strategy for shifting from today's internal combustion engine technology to tomorrow's hydrogen-based engines" (Issues in Science & Technology, 2002, p. 17)."

Tags:cellulosic, alcohol, agriculture

Abstract
This paper explains that the environment is in need of an alternative fuel source. It examines option for this alternative and discusses how this will be beneficial, both economically and environmentally.

From the Paper
"It is difficult to imagine a human society without cars. The idea that for millennia humans managed to survive, and even to thrive, without such a contraption is inconceivable to many in today's Western World. Automobiles are everywhere, and in most American cities it is nearly impossible to work or go to school without access to one. However, the widespread use of cars is not without its negative effects on society. Cars can be cost prohibitive for many people, especially in the lower classes. Maintenance and fueling of automobiles are two things which can truly take their tolls on the pocketbooks of the working class. Additionally, cars are also a cause of much pollution, and quite harmful to the environment. Many solutions have been proposed over the years to help make cars both less costly to run and less harmful to the environment. One of the most talked about solutions involves alternative fuel sources instead of the very costly and environmentally unsound petroleum-based fuels which are currently in use. "Whether it is natural gas, fuel cells, hydrogen or a popular combination of gasoline and electricity, alternative fuels are being pushed as a solution to America's energy crisis." (Maier) Cars cause a lot of pollution, therefore it is necessary to find alternative fuels. However, there are still many problems with alternative fuels that must be resolved, and the government should be taking steps to help make alternative fuels a widespread reality."

Tags:pollution

Abstract
This paper looks at how formerly environmentally damaging methane gas from landfills is now being utilized for direct-use and gas-to-electric projects that not only benefit consumers but are actually responsible for improving the environment.

From the Paper
"Three decades ago the notion of landfills was a distasteful one to most people. Landfills emit natural gases that are a by-product of decomposition of organic waste. Landfill gas emissions give off a noxious odor for those living in close proximity to landfills and the release of gases from aerobic and anaerobic oxygen free processes were thought to be detrimental to the environment. Landfill gas (LFG) is primarily composed of carbon dioxide and methane. Because of this it is flammable and potentially explosive in..."

Tags:waste management, greenhouse effect, alternative sources of fuel, heating, turbines, pollution, anaerobic processes, BMW, electricity, carbon dioxide

Abstract
This paper concerns the alternative fuel hydrogen. The writer notes how this fuel is produced and looks at some of the problems of making it practical for use in automobiles and other vehicles. The writer explains that storage is a major issue, because hydrogen takes up four items the space of a comparable fast energy source. Some of the research being conducted to correct this situation is noted, including new materials for storage.

From the Paper
"There are many reasons to embrace the demand for alternative fuels. The current state of the world's ongoing energy crisis, of the demand for fossil fuel and of the constant fighting over oil in the middle east, are all current events that are related to oil and fuel. However, we should also look to the future for the true reasons for using alternative fuels. The emissions from power plants, refineries and automobiles are causing global warming and irreversible damage to the ozone. This is why it is so important for scientists, engineers and researchers to break down the fossil fuel barrier and replace it with alternative fuels, one of which is hydrogen."

Tags:hydrogen, fuels, future

Abstract
The limited supply of fossil fuels is a fact that has been known for quite some time, and the great increase in the number of automobiles on the road has forced us to realize that the time we have left guzzling gas is very, very limited. This paper shows that prototypes of solar-powered vehicles have made news along with electric cars, but their lack of efficiency will not adequately support our driving needs. The paper argues, therefore, that the most probable alternative to the internal combustion engine is the fuel cell--a simple, clean source of energy that can be used in a variety of applications.

From the Paper
"Right now most fuel cell developments are directed toward use in automobiles. Gas prices are rising and our wallets are realizing the relative inefficiency of the internal combustion engine. More importantly, people are becoming more aware of the damage being done to the atmosphere by major greenhouse gases, specifically carbon dioxide, the main by-product of the internal combustion engine. Despite these factors, there is a bottom line."

Tags:electron, electricity, elemental, hydrogen, hybrid, engine

Abstract
This research discusses the world?s current energy crisis. Fossil energy comprises the majority of the world?s energy source; however, these fuels pose threats to the environment and do not provide a renewable source of energy. Analysts predict that the world will run out of fossil fuels in forty to fifty years. Due to this impending crisis, experts research and attempt to determine renewable energy sources that meet the world?s growing energy needs while considering the technical, environmental, financial, and social impact of these alternatives. This report summarizes four of the most developed renewable energy options that could feasibly replace fossil fuels as a source of energy, including fuel cells, solar power, wind power, and hydroelectric power. Fuel cells use substances such as methanol and oxygen to react and provide energy; however, obtaining a clean, reliable hydrogen source and lowering the cost must precede implementation. Solar power harnesses the sun?s thermal with photovoltaic cells to produce electricity; the paper focuses on concentrating solar technologies and the addition research required to employ this alternative fuel source. Wind power uses turbines situated in a field to capture the kinetic energy of the wind; as one of the most frequently used renewable energy resources, this solution may become feasible as prices decrease. Hydropower uses flowing water through a system of turbines and generators to produce vast amounts of clean energy, but its environmental impacts are serious and widespread. All of these renewable energy sources have advantages and disadvantages when it comes to producing energy on a large scale. Some of these factors include cost, efficiency, environmental factors, and political and social factors. The report recommends an increase in research for each of these fields, and concludes that these renewable energy sources will only develop if society as a whole accepts the financial burden that accompanies them. Overall, the financial burden of renewable resources does not compare to the devastating effects that continued fossil energy usage will leave on the environment.

From the Paper
"As the global energy crisis worsens, scientists and researchers internationally race to refine and implement renewable energy resources to provide societies basic power needs that do not depend upon the consumption of natural resources. Within the next century, if energy consumers continue to rely on resources such as coal, petroleum, and other fossil fuels at the current rate, society will deplete its fuel reserves, specifically petroleum, to the extent that alternate power sources become necessary to maintain current standards of living based on power sources. Environmentalists, scientists, and the general public target fossil fuel usage as the primary cause for the environment's poor condition; renewable resources will offer an opportunity to prevent and possibly improve damage caused by pollution from power procurement. Globally, consumers are ill-prepared for our inevitable reliance upon renewable energy resources; moreover, developing countries in the process of electrifying their citizens will not have the means to progress in the same energy-technology development cycle and cannot base their tenuous energy dependence on a rapidly waning fuel source. In the absence of fossil fuels, people must rely on new forms of transportation and energy to power our increasingly
technology-based society. Renewable resources, such as fuel cells, solar power, wind power, and hydro power offers an environmentally-savvy alternative to fossil fuels, yet many of these technologies require further research, refinement, and optimization before we can rely upon them as a substitute for fossil fuels in basic power needs (SolarPACES 1). The problem involves ensuring global preparedness when low energy reserves mandate the use of renewable energy resources through proper allocation of renewable energy technology, ethical support from the public and the government, financial flexibility, and environmental sustainability."

Tags:alternative, cells, crisis, energy, fuel, global, hydroelectric, power, solar, wind

Abstract
This paper confronts the destructive nature of our societies' voracious appetite for fossil fuels by detailing several alternative technologies. The author makes a strong case against the ongoing use of nuclear energy as an alternative to fossil fuels and argues that hydrogen fuel technologies are a much cleaner and safer source of renewable energy in the long term for our planet.

From the Paper
"First of all what is a fuel cell and how does it work? Simply they are batteries that run for as long as fuel is supplied, this fuel being a mix of hydrogen and oxygen producing electricity; the emissions are no more than heat and water. If the hydrogen is made from a renewable energy source no greenhouse gases or pollutants are released. The result is a clean energy source from the most readily available element known; hydrogen. Scientists researching this technology say that it can be transferred to any kind of electronic device, including cell phones, computers, and of course the larger applications being automobiles, commercial and residential structures. "

Tags:renewable energy, nuclear, fuel cell, technology, fossil fuels

Abstract
This paper describes some popular alternative energy sources and then addresses the effect of those same alternatives on the fiscal integrity of "Big Oil." The conclusion discusses possible global economic ramifications of oil companies being unable to transition to alternative fuels.

From the Paper
"In this paper we discuss a brief overview of some of the more popular alternative energy sources that are popping up in the public sphere, as well as some of their pros and cons."

Tags:alternative, fuel, economy