Abstract
This paper examines how genetic drift occurs when a subset of a population contains different gene frequencies than the larger population because it is a small sample. Over time, evolution and natural selection will work together to make the gene pool of a smaller population different from that of the greater allele distribution. It attempts to show how genetic drift is an important component of evolution and how, together with natural selection, it works to ensure genetic variety in all species.

From the Paper
"The Old Order Amish of Pennsylvania mate within their own community, and seldom involve the outside community. This loss of genetic diversity has led to a higher incidence of certain inherited diseases within Amish communities. For example, the founder effect in the Amish settlement has caused a variety of conditions, such as dwarfism and Crigler-Najjar syndrome, where the body can't break down bilirubin. Maple Syrup Urine Disease is much more common in the Amish, as is Homocystinuria, where an individual's blood vessels are damaged. In the case of polydactyly, where a person has extra digits, the prevalence among the Amish is much higher. "Today, thanks to large families and restricted marriages, the number of cases of polydactyly among the Amish exceeds the total number in the rest of the world." (Lewis, 246)."

Tags:gene, intermarriage, phenotypes, allele

Abstract
This paper explains "pharmacogenetics" focuses on genetic polymorphism in drug-metabolizing enzymes and how this is translated into inherited differences in drug effects. "Genetic polymorphism" is defined as the inheritance of a trait controlled by a single genetic locus with at least two alleles in which the least common allele has a frequency of about 1% or greater; furthermore, one of the most extensively studied genetic polymorphisms known to influence drug metabolism and its response is the debrisoquine type (CYP2D6), oxidation polymorphism. The author points out that somatic cell hybrid, in situ hybridization, and linkage mapping made it possible to localize the cytochrome P450 CYP2D6 on the q13.1 position of chromosome 22. The paper relates that racial and ethnic studies of drug metabolism have shown substantial inter-population differences in the metabolism of CYP2D6 genetic material, indicating that these mutations must have occurred once these populations were separated from each other. Many tables and charts.

Table of Contents
Introduction
Mapping
Molecular Genetics
Allelic Variants
Population Genetics
Evolution
Pathogenesis
Techniques
Appendix

From the Paper
"With the availability of screening for specific polymorphism in order to get personalized medicine, together with the understanding of the concept of pharmacogenetics and the different reactions it can have depending on some ones genome it would be possible to create new drugs with more powerful and more selective results than before. Doctors will be in the capacity of consulting the patient's genetic profile, anticipating if the patient has the probability of reacting in a certain way to some specific drugs. Probably in a near future the rule will be for each drug to have attached a certain number of examinations for some genome positions to which the drug metabolism could be altered."

Tags:pharmacogenetics, drug-metabolizing, alleles, race, ethics

Abstract
This paper discusses Alzheimer's disease from a genetic standpoint, identifying the genes, allele, and chromosome thought to cause it, as well as the disease's symptoms, diagnosis, treatment,and future treatment options.

From the Paper
"Alzheimer's disease is a common late-onset disorder characterized by a progressive decline in cognition and functional abilities over eight to twenty years and at least ... million Americans currently have the disease. (Zick Mathews Roberts Cook-Deegan Pokorski Green) Alzheimer's has been linked to various causes such as heavy metal toxicity but it has also been identified as having a genetic component. The gene identified as causing Alzheimer's is the SORL gene which governs the distribution of APP inside nerve cells of the brain..."

Tags:Alzheimer's disease, gene, genetic, treatment, diagnosis, symptoms, alleles, genetic testing, chromosome

Abstract
This paper outlines and discusses the authors' research on crossing the different alleles of fruit flies to determine the phenotypic ratio of an unknown cross, which is undertaken to become familiar with Mendelian genetics by using the Punnet Square and the Chi Square to predict the outcomes. The paper explains that Gregor Mendel is the man responsible for discovering the basic laws that explain how traits are inherited from parent to offspring. The paper clarifies that an allele is a specific version of a gene, while a gene is simply the DNA that codes for one protein. Also, a phenotype is a physical characteristic while genotypes deal with the genetic makeup. The paper notes that 61% of human genetic diseases have been found in fruit flies as well, which allows scientists to test possible methods of treatment on flies. The paper concludes that the researcher's null hypothesis was rejected, and that the experiment could have been improved by increasing the number of flies that were observed. Several tables are included with the paper.

Outline:
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
References

From the Paper
" It is also important to be familiar with the Punnet Square. It is used to figure out the possible outcomes of a cross between parents with known genotypes (Douglas, 1989). The first generation is the P generation, which are the parents. The next generation is the F1 generation, which is the first hybrid offspring in a series of genetic crosses. The following F2 generation is the offspring resulting from the interbreeding of the F1 generation. The Chi Square Statistical Test is used to analyze Mendelian genetics data and test the results. Scientists use the chi square test to determine the difference between the observed and expected results (Kohler, 1994). To determine the expected chi-square value we use a chart with degree of freedom (the number of categories subtracted by one) and the p-value, which is the probability that the deviation between your observed and expected values could have occurred due to chance alone (Orel, 1996)."

Tags:Punnet Square dominant recessive genes p-value, interbreeding

Abstract
This paper explores the working hypothesis that caloric restriction may prevent Alzheimer's disease. In addition, the paper explores the idea that individuals with the ApoE genotype and a higher intake of calories have a higher risk of AD than those who do not carry the apoE4 allele.

From the Paper
"Alzheimer's Disease is a form of dementia that is marked by the loss of mental ability and various cognitive functions. The disease usually occurs in old age and is not detectable at birth. (Robinson) There is no consensus on the cause of AD but researchers have found a genetic link in the development of the disorder. The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine explains that there are various genes that are implicated in AD. One such gene is amyloid precursor protein (APP), which creates amlyloid. When there are mutations in this gene the result is often the early onset of Alzheimer's disease. It is also reported that most individuals that have Down syndrome also develop AD."

Tags:ailment, chromosome, protein, transporting, lipids, neurons, diet, aging, diseases

Abstract
This paper discusses two topics related to ecosystems and biodiversity. The first relates to methods to promote conservation of ecosystems. The second pertains to current and ancient populations of kangaroos in Australia and how these populations are related due to alleles and gene flow.

From the Paper
"The continued loss of biodiversity continues to be a problem. Biodiversity equates to the variety of life and its processes indifferent ecosystems. To conserve biodiversity is to maintain and enhance that capacity of the habitat to support a variety of life. There are a number of methods for conserving biodiversity. Government, grassroots and individual efforts to protect sensitive habitats from degradation or conversion to other uses is one method especially for dwindling habitats like grasslands, wetlands, forests and others..."

Tags:population, contraception, phenotype, DNA, genetic drift, evolution, climate change, drought, food supply, habitat, wetlands, grasslands