Abstract
This paper discusses the well-researched and well-documented biography, "Abigail Adams: An American Woman" written by Charles W. Akers, presenting a multifaceted portrait of Abigail Adams. The paper contends that the book is scholarly, yet written with the lay audience in mind; the text is presented chronologically and with compelling narrative that exposes Adams's persona and opinions. Attesting to its relevance to academia and historiography, the paper claims that Akers's biography is almost entirely based on primary source material, namely, the two thousand letters Adams had written during the course of her life and the Adams family manuscripts.

From the Paper
"Abigail Adams is therefore an excellent historical reference work that can provide a foundation for studying life in revolutionary America in general. Abigail Adams represents a specific stratum of American life: the upper-class, white, Protestant, New England, and female perspective. In the early chapters of the biography, Akers offers a thorough family background of Abigail so that the reader can place her in context of not only her society and times but also of her unique upbringing. Her father William Smith was a church minister in rural Massachusetts and in spite of his piety refused the evangelical trends sweeping across the colonies known as the Great Awakening. William Smith's moderate views on religion undoubtedly influenced his daughter Abigail, who throughout her life would exhibit moderation in her opinions on most social and political issues. Although she was a staunch revolutionary, highly critical of the old European powers and strongly in favor of American independence, Abigail Adams was no radical. For instance, her brand of feminism included deference to traditional roles of women as wives and mothers."

Tags:feminism, independence, smith

Abstract
This paper presents a positive review of Akers' biography of former First lady of the sixth president of the United States, Abigail Adams. The paper points out that this biography had the advantage of being written after various family manuscripts were opened to public scrutiny so that Akers was able to make use of the material as well as approximately 2000 letters written by Abigail Adams and shape a picture of her that sets her apart from many of the women of her time.

From the Paper
"Akers discusses her education, especially her love for poetry because of her teacher, Richard Cranch. She learned much from her reading of different British authors, especially from the novels of Samuel Richardson and his celebration of female innocence. This reflected a reality in the colonies that made that area different from Europe, for a "scarcity of females and the dire shortage of labor in the colonies had temporarily raised the importance of women in America as compared with Europe" (11). Women were still not economically independent and still lived in a male-dominated society, but the egalitarian nature of the New World gave them a stronger position than their sisters in Europe."

Tags:womanhood, era, pioneer, spirit, new, nation, colonial, christianity, patriotism, john

Abstract
This paper explains that Abigail Adams stood as a witness to the crucial political events that resulted in the formulation of the nation's early political and legal history; however, her status as a woman during time and her intellectual and personal capacity is interesting in its own right, outside of her marital connections. The author points out that, unlike the relatively singular lives of Washington or Jefferson, the Adams emerged as a political dynasty as well as a political influence in the young nation's development. The paper states that Abigail Adams' letters to her husband lay testimony to the fact that rather than being complaint, during the immediate antebellum period, the ideological struggles over slavery and women's rights were woven into the historical fabric of the founding nation.

From the Paper
"Adams' failure to exhort her husband and to use her political influence to achieve her objectives highlights the contradictions of this early period of American history. It has been commented that the more simply articulated ideals of the Declaration of Independence eventually were diluted by the political necessities of constructing a Constitution amenable to all of the states, and to the maintenance of the aristocratic, land-owning class that the Founding Father came from. The new nation was to be governed by the Thomas Jefferson's of the world, not the Thomas Paines, and to maintain a delicate equilibrium between South and North; the existence of slavery was tolerated via the "three-fourths compromise." Similarly, women's rights were also compromised and bracketed for later reference, to be resolved by future generations. Certain contradictions of American free governance were put aside for later generations to wrangle with, rather than to become a part of the difficult struggles of making America into a new nation."

Tags:witness, letters, family, status, slavery

Abstract
This paper presents a case study of a sixteen-year old girl who, along with two friends, has been charged with assault and fraud. The paper discusses Aker's social learning theory which operates on seven basic principles to explain criminal behavior and explores these principles. The paper then analyzes the general strain theory (GST) on criminal behavior. Finally, the paper integrates the theories and discusses how they apply to the case study.

Table of Contents:
Introduction: Joyce's Story
Theory Evaluation # 1 - Aker's Social Learning Theory
Theory Evaluation #2 - General Strain Theory
Theory Integration
Conclusion: Policy/Practice Implications

From the Paper
"The theories work somewhat in addressing weaknesses in their complement. Aker's theory that criminal behavior is learned is refuted by research demonstrating that delinquent behavior proceeds criminal social attachments. GST would state this is because the cause of criminal behavior is emotional and is therefore the result of the individual, not the individual's peers (though this emotion is spurred by outside forces). GST's emphasis on emotive responses also explains why some crimes are not committed for material benefit - a factor Aker credits as instrumental in the crime process. GST's failure to acknowledge the higher proportion of male crimes (as compared to crimes committed by females) may be accounted for in Aker's theory of social learning and material benefit, but not enough research has been done on the topic to confirm this. Also, the simplicity implicit in GST and its inability to adequately distinguish between types of strain may be explained using Aker's Social Learning Theory. Perhaps some strains are linked to delinquency when there is an obvious benefit, and types strain not linked with crime may produce not obvious advantage for the individual."

Tags:GST, delinquent, juvenile, crimes, cognitive-behavioral

Abstract
The paper shows that there are a number of different views of the meaning of rape, its causes and other issues of importance. Different theorists and analysts have offered their view of the meaning of this act, the reason why this type of violence seems necessary to some people, the effect of rape on the victim, and the view taken of these matters by society. The paper explains that criminologists take different views of the causes of rape based on different theories of behavior. It examines two such theories - The 'Social Learning Theory' as set forth by a number of theorists, among them Ronald Akers and 'Radical Feminist Theory', which combines a feminist perspective on society with ideas about what causes human behavior. In terms of rape, this means male behavior. The paper shows that in some ways, both theories address rape from a perspective involving learned behavior and would try to solve the problem by substituting a different learning structure. It explains that where Akers and the Radical Feminists differ is in their definitions of rape and so in terms of the behavior they are explaining.

From the Paper
"Akers (1998) states that his General Theory "is applicable to all types of criminal and deviant behavior, from minor violations of social norms to the most serious and organized criminal activities" (Akers, 1998, xx). He offers a chapter on rape and sexual aggression in which he calls such crimes "sexual access," and describes the crime in terms of non-consensual sexual intercourse. This brings him into conflict with some feminists on the subject, such as Rozee (1994), who states that "limiting definitions of rape to only non-consensual sexual intercourse ignores some of the most violent and obviously non-sex-related cases of rape that occur, such as penetration with objects" (Rozee, 1994, 500). It would also exclude male victims, victims who are underage, wives, and the non-forcible rape of an incapacitated victim, which Rozee would not exclude."

Tags:'Social, Learning, Theory, Radical, Feminist, Theory

Abstract
This paper discusses various theories of criminal behavior including biological, psychological, and sociological factors. Some of the theories discussed are Lombroso's theory of atavism, Freud's theory of the id, ego, and superego and Aker's social learning theory.

From the Paper
"Attribution theory is aimed at explaining why people behave or act in a certain manner. Some people attribute behaviors to some quality within the individual themselves, such as biology, heredity, or psychology. Others attribute behaviors to factors outside of the individual. These are social factors, which include economic factors, the community in which the individual lives, the family, peer groups, and many more. For centuries, theorists have been applying the attribution theory to crime in order to determine why people commit crime. There are many different theories on this subject. Some attribute crime to biology, some to psychology, and others to sociology. These theories can be applied individually or combined to describe why people commit crime."

Tags:criminological, criminology, deviance, aker, lombroso, freud, id, ego, superego

Abstract
This paper reviews the movie "Blow" and applies the storyline of the movie to Robert Merton's strain theory, incorporates it with Gotredson's and Hirschi's self-control theory, and evaluates the strain theory using Aker's criteria. The paper outlines the true story that the movie is based on and discusses the "American dream" and the failure of some to attain it in legal ways.

From the Paper
"Blow is based on a true story about a man who gets involved with drug trafficking (Reynolds & Demme, 2001). When George Jung was a young boy he sees his parents fighting over money troubles. His dad had to file for bankruptcy and he decides that he will never struggle; he is going to be rich. After he graduates him and his friend Tuna move to California. In California he realized a whole different world, a world of beaches and drugs. To make money his girlfriend Barbara introduces him to Derek to purchase marihuana to sell. After a month of selling marihuana him and Tuna have made a lot of money. Dooley, an old friend from high school meets up with him and offers to help expand his business."

Tags:application, criminal, justice, practice, george, jung, tuna, drugs, barbara, derek

Abstract
This paper examines the use of the differential association-reinforcement theory to help re-adapt juvenile delinquents into new reward systems. The author points out the the plans of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP to observe this practical policy initiative for interacting and guiding families to support the children for environment reconstruction. The paper relates that this aspect of the learning theory proves the validity of giving hope to youths, who have become criminalized by peers or crime organizations, to find a new way of life.

From the Paper
"This sociological study will examine the role of sociological process theory within the policy formation initiatives that are now being used within social criminological programs. By understanding the theories that present these initiatives, one can realize how theory implicates policy in society. Also, addressing how social development theories play into Differential-Association-Reinforcement will be evaluated to show how effective this theory is in developing policies for institutions. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) uses a social development process for "preventing delinquency; intervening in early delinquent behavior, and responding to serious, violent and chronic offending" (254). In this manner, the process of rewards and punishments are being implemented to help families become more aware of how they teach their children, and what environment they are learning delinquency."

Tags:sociology, akers, social