Abstract This paper examines whether the United States was the aggressor in the Cold War. The author discusses the relevant issues and concludes that neither the Soviet Union nor the United States were aggressors, for each side believed it was acting defensively in response to the other's perceived aggression.
Abstract The paper explains that, considering the information now available, it seems unlikely the Soviets would have attacked the United States over the Cuban missile crisis. The author states that it actually appears the United States was the aggressor: The missiles were placed in Cuba by the Soviet Union as deterrents in response to a real threat from the United States because the United States had been planning on attacking Cuba for years, going back to the Eisenhower administration. The paper concludes that the weapons did ensure a peace because (1) the United States government agreed not to invade Cuba if the Soviet Union agreed to remove the missiles from Cuban soil, which they did, and (2) the United States agreed to remove missiles from Turkey. Several long quotes.
From the Paper "The Cuban Missile Crisis is one of the defining moments in twentieth century United States history. The Cold War was at its apex. The Cubans asked the Soviet Union to protect them against an American attack. In 1961, the United States sent troops into Cuba in an attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro. The attack failed and later became known as the Bay of Pigs fiasco. In 1962, Kruschev sent missiles into Cuba in order to deter an American attack. We were at the brink of World War III, both sides used verbal threats, and War was only averted when the Soviet Union removed the missiles in return for an American promise to not invade the island."
Abstract This is a research report, which focuses mainly on the methods of obtaining information in an intimate heterosexual domestic violence dispute. The research supported the paper's position that males are more likely to be the aggressor in a domestic violence setting, but notes the fact that women have, as of late, begun to be arrested at the scene of domestic disputes as either aggressor or as a co-aggressive participant.
From the Paper "In a violent dispute situation, it was the assumption by most that men, in the majority of cases, posed a greater threat to women. But, soon after arrests became the norm, women began to get arrested for domestic violence. Except for a minor number of scenarios, history shows that women pose a far less risk to their male counterparts. ?Mandatory arrest and the use of civil restraining orders without proper criminal sanctions are assuredly flawed solutions for preventing the complex enigma of domestic violence. Americans have historically objected to the government's attempt to legislate what they consider their private morality or family problems.? (Davis, 1998) Upon arriving on a scene, police must treat each case as a new individual event."
Abstract This paper examines the notion of war and justice. It looks at the just war convention and the concept of honor that has existed for centuries. The author looks at the just war tradition, which are a set of commonly agreed rules of combat that often develop between two parallel enemies and examines how they have evolved over time. The author also looks into the writings of some early Christian thinkers on war and compares their theories to the modern conduct of war. The author then uses the example of U.S. involvement in the War in Nicaragua and the rules of the conduct of war.
From the Paper "The just war convention is as old as warfare itself. Early records of communal fighting point out that warriors used some ethical issues. They may have occupied consideration of women and children or the treatment of prisoners. Commonly they referred to considerations of honor: some acts in war have always been considered disgraceful, at the same time as others have been deemed honorable. Whilst the details of what is honorable vary with time and place, the very fact of one moral virtue has been sufficient to infuse warfare with moral concerns."
Abstract Examines the similarities seen between the development of Taiwan and South Korea, since they became independent nations in 1953. More specifically, this paper examines the economic development of both countries, the support and financial assistance they receive from the West, the threat from external aggressors they are both exposed to, the protection they receive from the United States, and the development of their infrastructure.
From the Paper "South Korea is constantly threatened by North Korea, and the current saber-rattling by the North Koreans makes South Koreans jittery and may also raise questions about the safety of economic investment there from the West. The fact that both South Korea and Taiwan have achieved as much as they have in spite of such threats raises the question of how much they could develop if these threats were removed, though this does not seem likely in the near future. Both nations have achieved a similar level of development in the era since 1953 and have become major forces in the economic development of all of Southeast Asia."
Abstract This paper will discuss the California Indian massacres of the three knolls in 1865, the Kingsley Cave Massacres 1871, in relation to the Speegle family. These two Massacres and their causes and resulting violence will be explained. What happened during the battles will discussed in relation to the victims and the aggressors.
Abstract This paper examines how, after World War II, judges from Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States tried twenty-two Nazi leaders, primarily Holocaust perpetrators, for crimes against humanity, violating long-established rules of war, and waging aggressive war, and how these trials would eventually become known as the ?Nuremberg Trials.? It looks at how many have argued that the long-term impact of these trials is that they were able to establish a stigma against governments that engage in genocide. It also discusses how the greatest lasting impact of the Nuremberg Trials is that, in the some 100-plus civil wars since 1945, no international body had been convened to try aggressor nations or individuals accused of war crimes.
From the Paper "If we look back at Nazi war crimes, we may note that despite the reluctance of nations to unite in common cause and move swiftly toward a lasting road against aggression, the hope of a more lasting peace is likely to serve as a deterrent for all future warring factions. This was essentially the best that many judges and UN officials could hope for
as Nuremberg's brightest promise. The world had a problem of what to do about the Nazi regime that had presided over the extermination of some six million Jews and deaths of millions of others with no basis in military necessity. Never before in history had the victors tried the vanquished for crimes committed during a war. Though, never in history
had the perpetrators been involved in a plot of such a mass destruction of the human populace."
Discusses how the United States can protect itself from enemies within its own borders without harming the ideals of freedom on which the country's Constitution is based.
Abstract The tragedy of 9/11 is the most recent case in point of how a nation can take its freedom and liberty for granted, which ultimately allows others to tear down that which has taken over 200 years to build, protect, and defend. This paper shows that the Patriot Act of 2001 undoubtedly faces numerous legal challenges in the upcoming months and years. While the issue of protecting the nation cannot be forgotten in the aftermath of 9/11, neither can the lessons learned from the Alien and Sedition Acts, nor the tragic mistake of interning thousands of Japanese-Americans under no more than suspicion and bigotry. The paper explains that the challenge of defending a nation from outside aggressors is simple when compared to the problem of defending the nation from those who would attack it from within.
From the Paper "Under the Patriot Act, the FBI needs only to certify to a FISA judge that the action is based on investigating terrorism. There remains no need for evidence of a crime, or probable cause, only that the search is designed to protect against terrorism. Under the Act, the judge has no authority to reject this application. While the Department of Justice (DOJ) calls this "seeking a court order," in application it is much closer to a rubber stamp. In the pragmatic application of the Act, the target of a search needn't be a terror suspect himself, so long as the government's purpose is "an authorized investigation ... to protect against international terrorism." (Lithwick and Turner, 2003)"
Abstract By the late 19th century, many educated Chinese had become deeply disillusioned with their culture because neither Confucianism nor anything else within the Chinese tradition seemed adequate to meet the challenge of Western and Japanese imperialism. The potent fear that the foreigners would carve up China until it ceased to exist as an independent entity, together with increasing despair over the ineptitude of China's Manchu rulers, encouraged the growth of nationalist sentiment whose ultimate goal was a return to autonomy. This paper examines how, in foreign affairs during the 1860s, 1870s, and 1880s, China suffered a number of setbacks from foreign aggressors. One specific Western power was France, which had had previous relationships with China and then began moving into the area of Annam, or modern-day Vietnam.
From the Paper "The French discovered an alternate route that would facilitate better trading routes within China's Yunnan province. They looked towards seizing parts of north Annam. In 1874 a new treaty was signed which announced French control of Cochin China, the right to control Annamese foreign relationships, and navigation along the Red River. China had other internal and foreign issues occupying its governmental spectrum and took no action against France for stating its control over Annam. China ignored the treaty of 1874 under the pretence that Annam already was a tributary state under its control. French expansion into Indochina met with other foreign approval in Europe."
Tags: French, East, India, Company, Cochin, Red, River
Abstract This paper explains how and why the role of the military has been transformed from that of an aggressor to that of a peacekeeper. It explains the international changes that have propelled this transformation, how today's forces are different from those of the Cold War era, and why the military's new role is so important.
From the Paper "With the cessation of hostilities after two world wars and the subsequent Cold War, many political analysts believed that the role of the military would be curtailed to formal duties of border management. Many suggested that the role of the military would not be of any significance to the common man, since the changed circumstances in the world power balance would require more diplomatic intervention in times of crisis than the active role of the military. However, experience has taught us that the role of the military cannot be minimized to any stretch of our wishful imagination."
An analysis of how the Second World War was a result of a failure on part of the Allies to enforce the terms of the treaties they made, both with Germany and with each other.
Abstract This paper examines how, in the aftermath of the First World War, there were great efforts made to establish the party or parties responsible for the outbreak of the war and a great desire to justify the belief of the Allies that Germany had been the aggressor; the result of this was the 'war guilt' clause of the Treaty of Versailles. It looks at how, after the Second World War, however, few attempts seem to have been made to establish Germany's guilt, even though it had, in blatant defiance of the Treaty of Versailles, amassed a large army, and as early as 1935, began, by military posturing and political manipulation, to invade and annex various areas of land belonging to other sovereign nations. It analyzes how it is impossible to deny, looking fairly at the events leading up to the declaration of war against Germany by various nations in 1939, that the war would never have happened had Germany not been under the control of an ambitious warlord, Adolf Hitler, and how, although Hitler was indeed leading Germany down the path towards war, the Allies, consisting mainly of Great Britain and France, according to most historians had countless opportunities to bring a halt to the German war machine before it had the chance to create the formidable army introduced to Europe in 1939.
From the Paper "In January of 1936, Hitler moved four German divisions to the border of the Rhineland. There he bided his time, waiting for a good opportunity. It came on March First, after the signing of a French-Russian non-aggression pact. Hitler gave orders for a "surprise entry" into the Rhineland. On March 7th as many as three German divisions -- and possibly as few as one -- crossed over into the Rhineland. While the Rhineland rejoiced the return of the military, the world was unaware. Until noon, when Hitler announced, from the Kroll Opera House, that in the ?interests of the basic rights of its people to the security of their frontier and the safeguarding of their defense were re-established, as from today, the absolute and unrestricted sovereignty of the Reich in the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland.? "
Abstract This paper expounds on the theme expressed in Gore Vidal's book on American foreign policy, which suggests that the attacks of September 11 and the bombing of the federal building in Oklahoma City are not actions of simple "evil- doers", but follow a more complex and more difficult-to-grasp pattern, which cannot simply be catalogued as 'evil doings'.
From the Paper "Anti- Americanism, non- patriotism, pertinent observations, anti- Bushism, opinions? Strangely enough, depending on the point of view we choose to adopt and the perspective wherefrom we wish to judge his collection of essays, all of the above seem appropriate descriptions for Gore Vidal's book, "Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace"."
Tags: military, incursions, aggressor, twin, towers, pentagon, september, 11th, italy, united, states
Abstract This paper introduces, discusses, and analyzes the topic of male aggression in men between the ages of 21 to 27. Specifically, it discusses why men are more aggressive than women aged 21-27 and why men are the main aggressors in domestic violence situations.
From the Paper "Numerous scientists and researchers have conducted studies regarding male aggression and why it occurs. Much of the research points to the increased levels of testosterone in males, especially teens and young adults, as this researcher notes. "Men's fluctuating short-term testosterone levels respond to competitive situations, such as a tennis or wrestling match, a chess game, or a competitive task in a psychology laboratory" (Goldstein, 2001). Various studies have also shown that aggressive behavior between males can lead to increased testosterone levels, and that women do not experience the same type of increase in aggression when competing, or when winning in a game or contest. Goldstein continues, "Testosterone effects in male?female competition or dominance 'have yet to be addressed in research with humans'" (Goldstein, 2001). Thus, it seems men and women are inherently different when it comes to aggression, and men have more aggressive tendencies than women do ? especially men at the peak of their sexual and physical prowess, from 21 through 27. Certainly, biological differences are important, as this researcher states."
Abstract This paper explains that defensive realism is an umbrella term for several theories of international politics and foreign policy, which suggests that security is the primary interest of most states. Yet, when one state takes action to increase its perceived security, this action generally serves to decrease the perceived security of other competing states. The author points out that the reason the United States decided to intervene in what would have otherwise been a localized civil war was precisely because of the supposed involvement of Russia in North Korea's movements. The paper states that, if America had not appeared to be the aggressor, but had stuck strictly to a moderate course that communicated restraint, then it might never have had to face the massive forces of China. However, throughout the war, America seemed to act in an unrestrained fashion.
From the Paper "Once America got involved, it quickly restored the status quo and pushed the North Korean army back to the 38th parallel. However, General MacAuthor decided to "finish" the war by pushing farther into North Korea to assure the destruction of the North Korean military force. As America pushed its armies into what had originally been North Korean territory, it lost some of its ability to pass as a police action against an aggressive state and began to look like a direct assault on the communist bloc. This was certainly how it appeared to China as the American troops began marching on her borders. Chinese security interests demanded that North Korea serve as some kind of buffer between American forces in South Korea and the Chinese border, and also that American forces not be allowed on Chinese soil. So, as defensive realism would expect, China began to send forces to meet and engage American troops."
Abstract This paper relates that the most prevalent crime in prison society is rape, which correctional officers often ignore, sometimes even encourage the assaults and, especially in the women's prisons, perform the rape. The author points out that racial strife also lies at the root of most sexual attacks in prison; the majority of aggressors are poor black men from impoverished inner-city areas who harbor a deep-seated hatred for the white prisoners whom they feel symbolize the prejudice
and discrimination they have experienced in their lives. The paper urges better health care, especially mental health and delineates several proposed programs, which require a financial commitment from the government and its taxpayers that many still may not be willing to make; minimally, in the meantime, citizens should demand a set of standard minimum rules for the treatment of prisoners, similar to what the United Nations has adopted.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Inmate Violence
Guard Abuse
The Race War and Its Casualties
Health Care...or the Lack Thereof
Abysmal Abuses of Environment
Now What?
"Why Should We Care?...".
From the Paper "Prisoner on prisoner assault, guard assaults, racial tensions, minimal health care, deprived living conditions: what can possibly be done to prevent such abuses and human rights violations? Although it would prove quite naive to believe that any one of these problems has
a "magic bullet" solution, numerous programs and proposals are now in place which could at least begin a process of reform. Government investment in youth prevention programs is always a solid place to start. After all, if the legal system can reach a violent young kid before he morphs into a violent young criminal, then the estimated economic savings can number $50,000 per individual (in recovered incarceration expenses and potential earnings). The humanistic benefits to society are far greater. For those who slip through the cracks, detailed
drug treatment and prevention programs have been shown to curb recidivism."
