Abstract This paper looks at theories of relating to adulthood that explain how the transformation from one stage of adulthood to another can be just as significant as moving from childhood to adulthood. It explains that, just as a child may encounter difficulties as he or she progresses toward adulthood, adults may encounter difficulties as they face each new stage in adult life.
From the Paper "According to Lucas and Kuhner (1999), development is the process of creating meaning out of the events we experience. The meanings we develop are influenced and restricted by how we perceive those events, and so is subjective. Our perceptions will not exactly match those of others and we may perceive similar events in markedly different ways depending on a number of variables including our individual traits, our prior experiences, and how we perceived and interpreted those events. Thus over time, each person develops his or her own individual lens (Lucas and Kuhner, 1999) through which subsequent events will be viewed. This is an ongoing process that occurs throughout the adult's life."
Abstract Late adulthood is often mistakenly viewed as a time of relaxation, where everything slows and an individual's life becomes more consistent and less stressful. In reality, late adulthood is a time of great change. Individuals retire, children move away, lifestyles alter significantly and social ties decline. This paper shows that, most significantly, a person's relationships change significantly in late adulthood. This includes relationships with siblings, spouses, friends, children and grandchildren. By considering these relationships and how they change, this paper shows that late adulthood is far from being a time of reduced stress. It may become a time of reduced stress if the individual makes the transition successfully, but the actual process of transition involves many significant changes.
From the Paper "Peterson (2002) notes that friends play a special role because they link the individual to the larger social world. Individuals meet with friends as a way of keeping up with events in the world and in their own communities. This allows individuals to feel connected and avoids the problem of feeling isolated, alone, or rejected. It is also noted that older individuals have more secondary friends, which are described as "people who are not intimates but with whom they spend time occasionally" (Berk 2004, p. 606). This includes groups meeting to take part in activities such as playing bridge, lawn bowling, quilting, and various other craft activities".
Abstract This paper investigates the emotional development process in early adulthood. The paper examines the relationship between emotional development during early adulthood and the experiences of love and mate selection. Also addressed are the role that emotional development plays in lifestyle choices and the changes that occur in adulthood.
From the Paper "Individuals need to effectively deal with the presenting conflict of a current developmental stage in order to advance onto the next stage of development. Therefore, young adults need to work out issues of intimacy versus isolation in order to successfully leave young adulthood and graduate onto adulthood, which presents a different main conflict. Research has indicated that a necessary component for a capacity for intimacy is the achievement of a strong identity, and it has been found that this differs between men and women (Carver & Scheier, 1996). The presence of strong identities was found to be predictive of whether or not men got married, while it predicted the likelihood of a lasting marriage in women (Carver & Scheier, 1996)."
Tags: erikson, psycho-social, young, stages, old-age, intimacy, isolation, commitment, love
Abstract This paper looks at the life stage developments that occur during the ages of 18 through 35, as well as the characteristics of the members of this age group, and assesses their cognitive and psycho-social skills. It then discusses the psychological disorders that are typical at this age group, such as depression and stress-related disorders. Factors that contribute to the development of these disorders, including relevant life changes, are also discussed. The last section looks at how effective therapy or counseling techniques can help young adults address these common psychological disorders in young adulthood. It also suggests how counseling techniques such as psychoanalysis and cognitive-behavior therapy can be modified in order to address the special needs and disorders associated with this period.
Outline:
Young Adulthood Common Disorders and Counseling Methods
Depression and Bipolar Disorder
Counseling and Young Adulthood Works Cited
From the Paper "In purely physical terms, young adulthood encompasses only minor physiological changes, compared to those that occur at puberty. People can experience additional modest gains in height and in muscle development from their late teens to their early twenties, but generally do not experience major physical changes until middle age. However, young adulthood is a period of profound psychosocial and cognitive developments. Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development builds on the work of Sigmund Freud. Like Freud, Erikson basis his theory on the idea that internal, biological factors largely determine one's personality. However, while Freud's theory stops at adolescence, Erikson's psychosocial stages continue into adulthood.
Erikson believed that a person's social and cultural surroundings had a strong influence on one's psycho-social development."
Abstract This paper explores the life cycle stages every individual goes through as they grow older. The paper illustrates how the stages of adulthood can be categorized by the progression of the family stages. The paper focuses primarily on the theories of Erikson, Levinson and Jung.
From the Paper "Throughout most of history, it has been assumed that adults reside on a developmental plateau. The supposition was made that during the time between adolescence and old age, there were no systematic changes occurring. This mode of thought remained in place until the early 20th century, when studies began to reveal significant developmental influences across the life span."
Abstract This paper examines how the human body experiences a wide range of fundamental changes during the transition from prenatal to adult periods of life. It traces the development from conception through adulthood, using prenatal factors, factors of infancy and childhood, and factors of puberty concerning the chromosomal, hormonal, brain structure, gross anatomy, and self-perception changes that are experienced during these phases.
From the Paper "The prenatal period of anatomical development usually last for 40 weeks (ten lunar months) and can be divided into a period of cleavage (this is the distribution of the zygote's contents into smaller and smaller cells); an embryonic stage (this stage extends from the second week through the eighth week of development and is characterized by the formation of the placenta, the development of the main internal organs, and the appearance of the major external body structures (Hole 1990). The term embryo describes the fertilized egg during its first seven weeks of existence; the human embryo is usually termed a fetus after the eighth week of development, when the limbs and external features of the head are recognizable."
Abstract This paper describes the six stages of adulthood that, according to Gail Sheehy, we must all go through in order to become integrated, whole, and fulfilled adults.
From the Paper "Sheehy called the first stage of adulthood pulling the roots. It's from the age group of 18 -22 years old. She implied that after 18, people intend to go distance with their parents. This is the stage were young adults go through a series of activities "in the attempt to separate our view between family and base of our one's own" (Sheehy 159). In this stage, the hunger for independence emerges. We feel that we could now take care of ourselves and could make the right decisions. This is also the stage where we become confuse with ourselves and have an identity crisis, making us feel very unstable with our emotions."
Abstract This paper begins with a definition of bereavement and grief. Loss of a spouse is rated as the most stressful life event across all ages and cultural backgrounds. The paper continues to explore the myriad of literature on the topic of dealing with grief in late adulthood. In conclusion, it explores the diagnosis, symptoms and treatment of grief.
From the Paper "At least 10 -20 percent of widows and widowers develop clinically significant depression during the first year of bereavement, and without treatment, such depressions tend to persist, become chronic and lead to further disability and impairments (Older pp). Bereavement-associated depression often coexists with another type of emotional distress, which has been termed traumatic grief, the symptoms of which, although not formalized as a mental disorder in DSM-IV, appear to be a mixture of symptoms of both pathological grief and post-traumatic stress disorder (Older pp). Such symptoms are extremely disabling, associated with functional and health impairment and with persistent suicidal thoughts, and may well respond to pharmacotherapy (Older pp)."
Abstract This paper summarizes and critiques "Self-Resolution of Alcohol Problems in Young Adulthood: A Process of Securing Solid Ground" by Fingeld and Lewis. The paper summarizes the purpose of the study discussed in the article, and its significance, and presents a review of the literature and theoretical framework used for the study.
From the Paper |The following presents a summary and critique of "Self-Resolution of Alcohol Problems in Young Adulthood A Process of Securing Solid Ground" by Finfgeld and Lewis. The problem investigated for this study was alcohol problems in young adulthood and the purpose of the study was to explore self-resolution of this problem. Independent and dependent variables are not expressed, however, the grounded theory is used to explain a relationship between self-resolution of alcohol problems in young adults and the seeking of a solid ground..."
Abstract This paper consists of several distinct sections. The first section provides a brief literature review of some reputable sources on the subject of physical and health changes that occur during middle adulthood. The second section is a list of potential interview questions on the subject. The third section details verbatim two interviews conducted with those questions. The final section is a brief analysis describing whether or not the interviews matched the theoretical model described.
From the Paper "The purpose of this portion of the study is to examine some of the contemporary literature on the issue. Middle adulthood is generally understood to occur during the fourth and fifth decades of life, though some mark middle adulthood beginning as early as age 35 and stretching until one's mid-60s. However, the public doesn't understand as well the specific physiological changes that occur during this transition period of life. In the following few pages, current research and analysis will be presented on this developmental issue, followed by two interviews that were conducted by the author to test the validity of the theoretical model the literature suggests. In conclusion, the parallels (or lack thereof) between theory and interviews will be discussed. References to the changes that occur during middle adulthood in academic journals are often oblique."
Abstract This paper compares and contrasts adolescents and senior adults in terms of social and physical development. The paper describes, in detail, each stage of development and characterizes each by traits and characteristics that are specific to them. The paper concludes that these two stages possesses more similarities than differences.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
A Developmental Comparison between Adolescents and Senior Adults
Adolescence
Senior Adults (Late Adulthood)
Conclusion
From the Paper "Late adulthood bears a transition that follows a somewhat reverse order from that of adolescents. While adolescence begins with physical changes, the ushering in of late adulthood begins with a social change, that of retirement. It signifies the end of one's productive role in society while adolescents are just beginning to establish theirs. Retirement also means severing one's ties with colleagues and work associates or friends, a type of isolation that can be difficult to face. Adolescents face nearly the opposite challenge of initiating and forging social ties within school and community, and changing the relationship between members of family. The social skills they learn within this stage carries on into young and middle adulthood. As one ages, physical aging starts to manifest itself in subtle ways, becoming more obvious with time. It is this impending sense of mortality that preoccupies elderly persons as they get older - spouses, relatives and friends die. While death is a normal part of life, the final milestone - a sense of accomplishment and pride in one's well-lived life - would be achieved."
This paper discusses adulthood and self-awareness while taking a universal journey through three different novels: Mark Twain's 'Huckleberry Finn', Jane Austen's 'Emma' and Chaim Potok's 'My Name is Asher Lev'.
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that the journey through childhood and adolescence to adulthood and self-awareness is a trek through time that remains the same across ethnic groups and generations. The writer points out that for this reason, the universal journey has been a frequent subject in literature, filling numerous novels with the universal truths of the individualism and realization that come with attaining self-awareness. The writer discusses that three diverse examples of the universal applicability of this journey and truth are Mark Twain's 'Huckleberry Finn', Jane Austen's 'Emma' and Chaim Potok's 'My Name is Asher Lev'. The writer discusses that through similar themes, rites of passage and the presence of foils, the authors of these three novels present similar journeys to self-awareness for three very different characters.
From the Paper "In addition to similar themes, such as the theme of character uniqueness, all three novels use the literary technique of rites of passage to suggest the universality of the journey to adulthood and self-awareness. Each of the three characters across novels is required to complete certain rites before they make the startling self-discovery that changes their perspective. For Huckleberry Finn, these rites of passages take the form of a journey down the river in which he must see a dead man, whom he later discovers is his father, encountering the king and the duke, and hiding Jim. Emma must encounter failure with her attempt to redesign Harriett in order to understand the importance of relationship and the inequality of classes; and Asher Lev must learn to balance the importance of art and religious rigidity. By successfully completing all of these rites of passage, characters in all three of the novels learn important facts about themselves and the world of adulthood, a fact that prepares them to enter that world completely self-aware. Like the journey to adulthood and self-awareness, the rites of passage that each must encounter on the way are universally applicable."
Abstract This paper is about Erikson's theory of the last two stages of development (the ?Middle Adulthood? and ?Older Adulthood?) and how they relate to life's challenges. Eric Erikson was a German born American Psychoanalyst, known as a Freudian ego-psychologist who accepted most of the basic theories of Freud, but placed more emphasis on the societal and cultural aspects of psychology rather than on instincts and the unconscious. He refined and expanded Freud's theory of stages of development by putting forward an epigenetic principle of development, which states that the human personality unfolds progressively in eight distinct stages of life. He was a staunch believer that human development continues into adulthood and old age and is just as important as it was in the earlier parts of our lives. This paper analyzes the ?Middle Adulthood? stage of development which relates to the period in life during which we are involved in raising children, generally described as the period between the ages of 40 to 65 and the ?Older Adulthood? which refers to the age around retirement when the task of "parenting" is over.
From the Paper "Erikson has described two basic "tasks" or "crises" for each stage of our development stage. One is a positive task and the other a negative task. While the development of the positive task is desirable, some assimilation of the negative task is also necessary for a balanced development of human personality. For example in the first (infant) stage, the tasks are "trust" and ?mistrust.? While trust is the positive and desirable task to be learnt by the infant, a little bit of "mistrust" is also necessary for a "balanced" development. Too much of trust and no mistrust would make the infant a gullible fool in later life. (Ibid.) Erikson's theory is that we carry forward some maladjustment or malignancy into the next stage, if our progress in a particular stage of development is not ?balanced.? While maladjustment refers to over-development of the positive task, malignancy is the over-development of the negative ?task.? Obviously, the tilting of the balance in favor of the negative trait is more damaging for an individual."
Tags: freud, ego-psychologist, human, personality, old, age, maturity, children
Abstract Much research has been done into the effects of divorce on children. However this paper shows that much of this research has focused on what happens with children during the first few weeks or months after the divorce. Far fewer studies have been done into how divorce effects children in the long-term as they go through adolescence and into adulthood. It explains that the conventional wisdom seems to be that, as children grow up, they are able to see their parents' divorce with more objectivity and maturity and will not harbor any resentment over it in their adulthood. It follows to explain that common sense states that emotional scars inflicted in childhood are not so easily faded. In fact, those scars can grow into entirely new things as a child grows up. This paper explores some of the long-term effects of divorce on children.
From the Paper "These are all problems that either carry on into adulthood or manifest in adulthood for the first time. The shock of losing a parent to divorce, to only being able to see one parent occasionally, and of seeing their parents seemingly at war with each other causes severe psychological trauma to a child, and that child may wonder if he or she will ever feel safe and secure again. If not properly handled in the beginning, these children can grow up with lasting psychological damage. It can affect everything in their adult lives, from how well they do in school to their ability to keep a job to their success with interpersonal relationships. Children who do not get the proper psychological attention during and after a divorce are not being given a good start in life and can find themselves with emotional scars that will not heal."
Abstract This paper discusses the life of pioneering American psychologist and philosopher, William James. It analyzes his life according to Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. The paper looks at five stages of James' life, describes events in his life at those points, and then analyzes their meaning according to Erikson's theories on psychosocial development.
Table of Contents:
Infancy / Early Childhood (0-6 Yrs)
Middle Childhood (6-12 Yrs)
Adolescence (12-20 Yrs) And Young Adulthood (20-40 Yrs)
Late Adulthood To Death (60 Yrs +)
Conclusion
From the Paper "William James' central conflict, as one biographer saw it, was between his "Promethean" and "mystical" selves: one manifested itself in the philosopher's pragmatism and democratic ideals; the other manifested itself via his long fascination with metaphysics, psychical research, higher consciousness studies, and the like (Raposa 2001). This dichotomy may be overly reductive, but it does show something of James' divided (yet highly functional) self. Observers agreed in describing William James as "tolerant, manly, liberal, romantic, impetuous, mystical, generous, anti-traditionalistic, sensitive, brilliant, kind, eloquent." They saw him, despite his self-confessed depressive states, as optimistic, anti-fatalistic and very sociable. Like all great men, William James possessed a complex, even contradictory nature, which he utilized to his advantage to create and push himself to higher levels of accomplishment, even in the face of depression and self-doubt."
