Abstract This paper distinguishes between two forms of affirmative action policies, the goal-based affirmative action and process-based affirmative action. In goal-based affirmative action, the emphasis is placed on giving minority racial status special consideration even before a qualified pool of candidates is established. This form of affirmative action was evident in the controversial admissions policies at the University of Michigan Law School, where African-American and Hispanic applicants were given 20 extra points solely based on their ethnicity.
From the Paper "Other opponents of affirmative action in universities argue that by fostering an atmosphere of race-based promotion, these policies also serve to minimize the individual gains that many African Americans, women and other minorities achieve on their own merit. Instead, their achievements are tainted by a stigma. In one example, a young black woman made the University of Virginia's Law Review just as the university's affirmative action went into effect. The change from the previous, merit-based system significantly reduced the value of the young woman's Law Review achievement (Conti and Stetson 44-45)."
Abstract This paper is a historical analysis of affirmative action in the United States. It covers the period from the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the leaders involved in the decision to pass this amendment to the Constitution, and the motivation behind this historic decision. It then compares the policies of more recent years, and shows how the intentions of the originators of this Act have been manipulated, and how the group that it was intended to benefit from these actions, are now suffering reverse discrimination.
From the paper:
"The Declaration of Independence states, "all men are created equal." Our Constitution is based on giving each citizen the same equal rights. However, policies have been implemented since 1961 to go against the words of the founding fathers of this country. Affirmative action is, by definition, "a policy or program for correcting the effects of discrimination in the employment or education of members of certain groups" or "encouragement for increased representation of women and minority-group members, especially in employment." Problems associated with affirmative action include reverse discrimination. Also, merit and accomplishments may be replaced by the requirement of a quota for a certain race or gender."
This paper argues that years of racial tyranny in American history are never going to be justly rectified, but affirmative action has proved to be an appropriate start.
Abstract This paper explains that some people believe that that affirmative action gives preferential treatment to blacks first, then, in descending order, to women, Native Americans, Hispanics, handicapped, Asians and finally to white males and prevents hard working Americans from being rewarded with promotions because of affirmative actionbased agendas. The author points out that affirmative action is compensatory justice because blacks and minorities have been mistreated and harmed severely by whites and affirmative action has done more for society than it has done to hurt it. The paper concludes, that the contention that affirmative action is reverse discrimination will be argued for years because of its Catch 22 type of solution: "If minorities and women were mistreated in the past for a morally irrelevant characteristic, then to give them preferential treatment for the same morally irrelevant characteristic is equally indefensible."
Table of Contents
Definition
Introduction
Thesis
Arguments
Opposition 1
Opposition 2
Support 1
Support 2
Conclusion
From the Paper "Over a hundred years ago, American white men owned and profited from black slaves, terrorized and took land from Native American Indians and enjoyed social status over women. As a result of affirmative action, minorities and women now have equality on many levels, benefiting from equal rights, better income opportunities and improved social status as a whole. In its tumultuous 40-year history, affirmative action has been both praised and supported as an answer to racial inequality. The policy was introduced by President Johnson as a method of redressing discrimination that had persisted in spite of civil rights laws and constitutional guarantees."
Abstract This paper discusses how when the general public thinks of research, they think of an active investigator making use of passive data. In the case of human-based research, if the general public thinks of it at all, they assume that research consists of the researcher asking questions of a responsive participant. Participatory action research (PAR), however, alters these patterns of research. This paper further addresses how PAR can have an effect on social change? Is it possible for it, also, to effect change in educational organizations? What is Participatory Action Research (PAR)?
Abstract This is an analysis of affirmative action, race, public policy and education at the secondary and higher educational levels. Although it is written from an educational perspective, this paper also weighs heavily in terms of social and political policy. It discusses the two major events in the recent history of education. In 1995 the Board of Regents of the University of California system voted to ?stop admitting students, hiring professors, and awarding contracts on the basis of race." In April of 2001, the Fifth Circuit Court handed down a decision in a case challenging the legitimacy of affirmative actionbased admissions practices at the University Of Texas Law School.
From the Paper "While educators have spent the last several years debating issues of quality and accountability in schooling, two fairly recent events have focused at least some attention on the issue of equality in education. In the summer of 1995 the Board of Regents of the University of California system voted to ?stop admitting students, hiring professors, and awarding contracts on the basis of race.? The announcement that all affirmative action considerations would be removed from the largest state system of higher education caused an immediate public outcry. In April of 2001, the Fifth Circuit Court handed down a decision in a case challenging the legitimacy of affirmative action based admissions practices at the University Of Texas Law School. It stated, effectively, that race might not be considered as a factor in the admissions process."
Abstract This paper outlines the history of ethnography, the principle individuals behind its inception, and the manner in which data is collected. The paper also analyzes the strengths and weakness of ethnography and examines the ethical issues surrounding this type of research. In addition, this paper outlines circumstances when ethnography is a viable research tool and describes the manner in which it has been used in education research. Finally, the paper concludes with some well-known examples of ethnography.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Overview of Qualitative / Action-Based Research
History of Ethnography
Ethnography as a Viable Research Method
Strengths and Weaknesses of Ethnography
Ethical Issues Surrounding Ethnography
Ethnographical Research Used in Education Research
Well-Known Studies of Ethnography
Conclusion
From the Paper "Other aspects of ethnographical research that can be considered weaknesses is the types of participant strategies that it involves. The first and most fundamental distinction among observational strategies concerns the extent to which the observer is also a participant in the program activities being studied. Weaknesses in have been pointed out in determining what kind of participation the researcher must engage in. According to Genzuk (2003), the extent of participation is a continuum which varies from complete immersion in the program as full participant to complete separation from the activities observed, taking on a role as spectator."
Abstract The paper examines the Cheryl Hopwood case where a young white woman applied to the University of Texas Law School and was denied admission. The paper shows that four years later Hopwood, along with four other plaintiffs, filed a lawsuit against the University of Texas Law School for reverse discrimination. This paper provides specific reasons that support race-based admissions for colleges and universities. The paper points to the educational benefits students receive when they attended a diverse college.
From the Paper "Another educational benefit to college students is that studies have shown that a diverse campus contributes to better academic outcomes. In 1999, Gurin conducted a study of the educational benefits of college students who attended a diverse college campuses. Gurin found that White students, as well as minority students, reported higher levels of "diverse ideas and information" (10). Gurin also found in his study that students from diverse college campuses were more likely to show growth in their "active thinking processes" (10). That is, college students from diverse campuses scored higher test scores in complex thinking and social thinking than those from a more homogenous college campus. These students also had "higher levels of intellectual engagement and motivation" (21). Lastly, these students were more likely to aspire to go to graduate school (23). As seen in Gurin's study, college students from diverse campuses gained educational benefits."
Abstract The paper discusses the subject of action research, a term that is used to describe a continuum of activities that focus on research, planning, theorizing, learning and development, and involves a continuous process of research and learning in the researcher's long-term relationship with a problem. This paper reviews the action research and the different cultures of inquiry. An examination of the origins of action research is followed by a discussion concerning how action research fits with the educational system. An analysis of the role action research has played in educational history and the role of teachers is followed by a summary of the research and salient findings in the conclusion.
Outline:
Review and Discussion
Types of Action Research
Goals and Contributions of Action Research
Action Research Steps
Data Collection Methods for Action Researchers
Conclusion
From the Paper "Although the framework illustrated in Figure 1 above is clear and consistent with basic action research and experiential learning premises, is remains inadequate to specifically address the complex context and requirements of contemporary educational research by distinguishing experiment design and planning from action and data collection (McPherson & Nunes, 2004). These authors maintain that these research stages should be separated from data analysis, interpretation and dissemination, and offer an eight-stage framework developed by Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000) that provides a much better support for education researchers."
Abstract This paper serves as a defense for the "Simple View" of the relationship between intentions and intentional action. In this view, an agent does action X intentionally only if she intended to do X. This view is subject to criticism through examples of actions that were completed intentionally but were not intended by the agent. Such examples are forwarded by Gilbert Harman and Michael Bratman and are used to refute the Simple View. The goal of this paper is to defend the Simple View against the examples presented by Harman and Bratman by showing how Bratman's own definition of "intention" allows for the actions in his examples to be qualified as both intentional and intended. This paper serves as a follow-up to Hugh McCann's ""Settled Objectives and Rational Constraints," which serves to counter some of Bratman and Harman's examples. It continues McCann's effort to defend the Simple View on a wider range of examples.
From the Paper "There are two types of examples that seem to cause all kinds of problems for what Michael Bratman terms the "Simple View" of the relationship between intentional actions and intentions. The Simple View maintains that if an agent does an action A intentionally, then she intended to do A. The two groups of examples of intentional actions that seem to present challenges to the Simple View can be categorized by the nature of the beliefs and desires surrounding them. In the first group are intentional actions that the agent desires to achieve but is fairly or completely certain that she will not be able to do. This includes examples like Alfred Mele's golfer Lydia who is trying to hit a hole in one to win a million dollars. In the second group of examples are intentional actions that the agent believes she will carry out - either as a direct action or as a side effect of some other action - but that she really does not want to do. Let us call this group of actions grudging actions . This group includes examples like Gilbert Harman's sniper who knows he is going to alert the enemy to his presence by trying to shoot his target. In "Settled Objectives and Rational Constraints," Hugh McCann offers a defense for the Simple View against examples from the first group, but he conspicuously does not address examples from the second set, leaving the Simple View vulnerable on this important front. In this paper I will attempt to follow up McCann by offering a reasonable defense for the Simple View for examples of grudging actions under Bratman's definition of intention. First, I will draw a distinction between two types of intentional actions that can fall into this group: direct actions and what I will call side-effect actions. This distinction will allow us to focus on the side-effect examples - which are really the only problematic ones for the Simple View - but it will also reveal an important point about how intentions to do something can hold up in the face of strong or even prevailing negative desires (i.e., desires not to do something). Building from there, I will then attempt to reconcile the Simple View with the side-effect examples and in doing so will consider a strong objection of Bratman's to the labeling of agents in these types of actions as intending these actions. "
Abstract This paper examines the history of affirmative action and contains detailed research explaining the sharp declines in higher education among varying minorities. The author also reviews the pros and cons of this hotly debated topic with extensive research and statistics.
Table of Contents
Abstract
Trends Revealed in Higher Education
College Enrollment
A Brief History of Affirmative Action Threats to Affirmative Action Making Affirmative Action Work
Associations and Organizations
Making It Work
Conclusions
Endnotes
References
From the Paper "In order for us to attain a truly Democratic Society, regardless of political persuasion as Senator Kennedy points out, all Americans shall need to be made aware of and participate in the programs of Affirmative Action and Diversity. We are indeed a nation made up of a "melting pot," of various cultures however we are still true to the founders of this nation and rather than classification into some "politically correct," group much rather prefer to be labeled as Americans from the United States of America. United indeed by our very diversity that we as a nation are finally after many, many years of struggle one "Great Society," as envisioned by former President Johnson and every one of his predecessors and successors to hold the high office of President of the United States of America."
Tags: affirmative, action, education, minorities, law, rights
Abstract This paper explains that the intention behind the affirmative action policy was positive in that its goal was to open doors and equalize opportunities between blacks and whites. The author points out the potentials scenario white Americans would face if affirmative action ceases. The paper relates the history of affirmative action and the litigation and trends toward reverse discrimination (Bakke v. California Board of Regents) and recent US Supreme Court rulings upholding affirmative action policies.
From the Paper "Affirmative Action as a "policy" was introduced in 1965 by then President Lyndon B. Johnson as a method of redressing discrimination that had persisted in spite of civil rights laws and constitutional guarantees. "This is the next and more profound stage of the battle for civil rights," Johnson asserted. "We seek... not just equality as a right and a theory, but equality as a fact and as a result." (Brunner) Given that the 1960's were a period of social unrest, along with attempts at righting perceived long-term wrongs against minorities. The intention behind the Affirmative Action policy was positive in that its goal was to open doors and equalize opportunities between blacks and whites."
Abstract This paper reviews the debate swirling around affirmative action. In particular, the paper argues that affirmative action contains more benefits than debits and that at least some of the arguments put forward in opposition to it can be successfully rebutted by the available evidence. Specifically, the paper reviews the commonplace criticisms that affirmative action diminishes professional standards and also exacerbates racist and/or sexist attitudes towards certain groups. The paper concludes that the reasons in support of affirmative action are plausible and convincingly supported by the literature.
From the Paper "For a very long time now, American society has been attempting to come up with a means of ensuring access to higher education and to lucrative jobs for minorities and for women. The most controversial of all the means used has been affirmative action, an approach which has increased the percentage of women and minorities in managerial and professional occupations ("Myth: Affirmative Action Hasn't Worked" n.d.) but has done so, critics charge, by placing people in positions for which they are ill-prepared and/or by discriminating against people simply on the basis of gender or race. Consequently, every failure by someone boosted into a position of authority by affirmative action may actually feed negative stereotypes about the group to which that individual belongs and lead to calls that merit is the greatest victim of affirmative action policies."
Abstract This essay defines and explains four types of affirmative action, ranging from mild to severe, discusses common opinions regarding AA, and examines philosophical arguments for and against AA The four sources quoted in the essay are all philosophers, and their positions and rationale on the issue of affirmative action are explained. At the end of the essay the author indicates her own position on the morality and justice of AA programs, coming out in favor of affirmative action.
From the Paper "One of the primary values of American society today is equal opportunity, and while there is still far to go true progress is occurring. Second, within a few years society will realize that the debate over weak and strong AA is simply diverting attention from the real issues: providing every child in America with the same quality education, health care services, and working to strengthen families."
Abstract This paper explains exactly what affirmative action is and how it affects society. The author explains how it could be viewed as reverse discrimination or whether it is just making up for years of mistakes. The author takes a stand and says that affirmative action should be outlawed.
From the Paper "One way that the use of affirmative action can be limited is by giving more money to institutions that have a strong minority population (Sterlitz, 1999). This would give them better opportunities to get a job based on their skill instead of on their race. Sterlitz (1999) says "these institutions would give direction and guidance that is needed by all to play a major role in his/her community."
Abstract An examination of the affirmative action policy that was introduced in 1965 and has since been both praised and denounced as an answer to racial equality. According to the author, it was President Johnson who felt that it was an appropriate remedy to discrimination, which continued to plague the United States regardless of civil rights laws and constitutional pledges and who therefore introduced the affirmative action policy as a temporary remedy that would end when a "level playing field" was created for all Americans.
From the Paper "Affirmative action has increasingly become a popular subject of debate. Not only does the phrase "affirmative action" mean different things to different people, but also there are different arguments for and against it. The most controversial kind of affirmative action includes some sort of "preference" for black Americans when applying for jobs or to colleges and professional schools. Affirmative action means different things; and the arguments vary. It is not even clear what counts as a preference. Many people want to keep it as it is, saying that it is necessary for democracy. Others support affirmative action but see it as a flawed remedy in need of change. A third group believes that a fair playing field has been established and is pushing for the elimination of affirmative action policies."
Tags: affirmative, action, equality, employment, discrimination, employer, United, States
