Abstract
This paper explains that some people believe that that affirmative action gives preferential treatment to blacks first, then, in descending order, to women, Native Americans, Hispanics, handicapped, Asians and finally to white males and prevents hard working Americans from being rewarded with promotions because of affirmative action based agendas. The author points out that affirmative action is compensatory justice because blacks and minorities have been mistreated and harmed severely by whites and affirmative action has done more for society than it has done to hurt it. The paper concludes, that the contention that affirmative action is reverse discrimination will be argued for years because of its Catch 22 type of solution: "If minorities and women were mistreated in the past for a morally irrelevant characteristic, then to give them preferential treatment for the same morally irrelevant characteristic is equally indefensible."

Table of Contents
Definition
Introduction
Thesis
Arguments
Opposition 1
Opposition 2
Support 1
Support 2
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Over a hundred years ago, American white men owned and profited from black slaves, terrorized and took land from Native American Indians and enjoyed social status over women. As a result of affirmative action, minorities and women now have equality on many levels, benefiting from equal rights, better income opportunities and improved social status as a whole. In its tumultuous 40-year history, affirmative action has been both praised and supported as an answer to racial inequality. The policy was introduced by President Johnson as a method of redressing discrimination that had persisted in spite of civil rights laws and constitutional guarantees."

Tags:reverse-discrimination, equality, white-male, compensatory-justice, catch-22

Abstract
This paper discusses how affirmative action is based not on treating people equally, but on recognizing that people are not treated equally and making a certain effort to improve things for the disadvantaged group. It analyzes the elitist perspective of Thomas R. Dye through his literature, who explains that although public policy reflects the needs of the people, it really reflects the needs of the elite few that shape public policy and that that these social elite do not necessarily have the best interests of the people in mind. The general public may have their opinions, but they are not in power and they are not part of the elite that make the decisions.

From the Paper
"It is also important to note that society as a whole has placed a certain emphasis on equality as a good thing. Equality is often viewed as the opposite of discrimination, where discrimination is defined as "the hiring or promoting of applicants based on criteria that are not job relevant" (Daft 1997, 417). This has implications in that items of difference can be seen as discrimination even if they are job relevant. For example, a company may decide not to employ a Chinese person as a secretary. This could be based on that individual not being able to speak English effectively, a criteria that is job relevant. Yet despite this job relevance, it is likely the choice would be viewed as a form of discrimination."

Tags:Thomas, R., Dye, equality

Abstract
This paper distinguishes between two forms of affirmative action policies, the goal-based affirmative action and process-based affirmative action. In goal-based affirmative action, the emphasis is placed on giving minority racial status special consideration even before a qualified pool of candidates is established. This form of affirmative action was evident in the controversial admissions policies at the University of Michigan Law School, where African-American and Hispanic applicants were given 20 extra points solely based on their ethnicity.

From the Paper
"Other opponents of affirmative action in universities argue that by fostering an atmosphere of race-based promotion, these policies also serve to minimize the individual gains that many African Americans, women and other minorities achieve on their own merit. Instead, their achievements are tainted by a stigma. In one example, a young black woman made the University of Virginia's Law Review just as the university's affirmative action went into effect. The change from the previous, merit-based system significantly reduced the value of the young woman's Law Review achievement (Conti and Stetson 44-45)."

Tags:goal, based, process, black, universities

Abstract
The paper explains that action research is a contemporary area of scientific and sociological inquiry where behaviors, attitudes, preferences, and subsequent actions of a given individual or population are studied (Firestone, 1987). The paper discusses how change is made based upon the review of these practices, where a specific action or a plan of action is put into place as a means of affecting a desired outcome.

From the Paper
"Action research is a contemporary area of scientific and sociological inquiry where behaviors, attitudes, preferences, and subsequent actions of a given individual or population are studied (Firestone, 1987). Change is made based upon the review of these practices, where a specific action or a plan of action is put into place as a means of affecting a desired outcome. This paper shall briefly discuss the theoretical and methodological foundations of action research.

Tags:action, research, lewin

Abstract
This paper is a historical analysis of affirmative action in the United States. It covers the period from the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the leaders involved in the decision to pass this amendment to the Constitution, and the motivation behind this historic decision. It then compares the policies of more recent years, and shows how the intentions of the originators of this Act have been manipulated, and how the group that it was intended to benefit from these actions, are now suffering reverse discrimination.

From the paper:

"The Declaration of Independence states, "all men are created equal." Our Constitution is based on giving each citizen the same equal rights. However, policies have been implemented since 1961 to go against the words of the founding fathers of this country. Affirmative action is, by definition, "a policy or program for correcting the effects of discrimination in the employment or education of members of certain groups" or "encouragement for increased representation of women and minority-group members, especially in employment." Problems associated with affirmative action include reverse discrimination. Also, merit and accomplishments may be replaced by the requirement of a quota for a certain race or gender."

Tags:affirmative, action, civil, rights, kennedy, california, conservative, blacks, eeoc, johnson, race, gender, supreme, court, georgia, maryland, poor, classes, college

Abstract
This paper discusses how when the general public thinks of research, they think of an active investigator making use of passive data. In the case of human-based research, if the general public thinks of it at all, they assume that research consists of the researcher asking questions of a responsive participant. Participatory action research (PAR), however, alters these patterns of research. This paper further addresses how PAR can have an effect on social change? Is it possible for it, also, to effect change in educational organizations? What is Participatory Action Research (PAR)?

Tags:participatory, action, research

Abstract
The paper examines the Cheryl Hopwood case where a young white woman applied to the University of Texas Law School and was denied admission. The paper shows that four years later Hopwood, along with four other plaintiffs, filed a lawsuit against the University of Texas Law School for reverse discrimination. This paper provides specific reasons that support race-based admissions for colleges and universities. The paper points to the educational benefits students receive when they attended a diverse college.

From the Paper
"Another educational benefit to college students is that studies have shown that a diverse campus contributes to better academic outcomes. In 1999, Gurin conducted a study of the educational benefits of college students who attended a diverse college campuses. Gurin found that White students, as well as minority students, reported higher levels of "diverse ideas and information" (10). Gurin also found in his study that students from diverse college campuses were more likely to show growth in their "active thinking processes" (10). That is, college students from diverse campuses scored higher test scores in complex thinking and social thinking than those from a more homogeneous college campus. These students also had "higher levels of intellectual engagement and motivation" (21). Lastly, these students were more likely to aspire to go to graduate school (23). As seen in Gurin's study, college students from diverse campuses gained educational benefits."

Tags:action, affirmative, cultural, english, essay, persuasive, psychology, research, sociology, studies

Abstract
This paper distinguishes between two forms of affirmative action policies, the goal-based affirmative action and process-based affirmative action. This paper argues that most people who protest against affirmative action are actually against goals-based affirmative action. This paper further argues that a greater emphasis on process-oriented affirmative action policies will more effectively address the concerns of both sides of the affirmative action debate.

From the Paper
"Critics decry race-based admissions policies as an undermining of the merit-based system. However, Jesse Jackson points out the effects of race and socio-economic class in the academic performance of many minority children. Jackson argues that unlike affluent white, many minority students from low-income families do not access to resources like honors classes and SAT preparation courses. Also, the fact that many have to work after school to augment the family income places minority students at a distinct disadvantage at the college applications process (Jackson 290)."

Tags:education, policy, debate, school

Abstract
This paper looks at the theories of Rushworth Kidder to determine the ethical qualities of affirmative action from the ends-based, rule-based and care-based resolution philosophies. The paper briefly summarizes these theories and then explores if affirmative action is thus right or wrong. It posits that it is right for ends and care based, while it is wrong for rule-based.

From the Paper
"Business ethics writer Rushworth M. Kidder addresses decision-making from a variety of principles in his works, each founded upon moral stances. These resolution principles, considered when solving a right versus wrong dilemma, can be of aid to individuals. Ends-based, rule-based and care-based perspectives can all be evaluated when deliberating on an action, such as affirmative action, to decide upon the ultimate degrees of good it can produce. Kidder describes ends-based thinking as "utilitarianism, this principle is best known by the maxim `do whatever produces the greatest good for the greatest number" (1995, p.24). From this perspective, the title of `ends-based' is appropriate, as one can only consider what would produce the most good for the highest number of people if one is speculating upon possible outcomes, or consequences. Rule-based thinking, by contrast, is associated with Kant's ..."

Tags:kidder, ethics, principles

Abstract
Affirmative action, in higher education and elsewhere has been a hotly debated issue, since its inception, among a group of minority faculty and faculty organization from US law schools conceived of the need for forcing social change through guided plans and procedures that would make up for missing opportunities for racial minorities, a year prior to Martin Luther King Jr's assassination. Since then there have been many legal challenges to affirmative action which was tailored significantly by nearly every university and many other institutions independently. The specific and individual affirmative action plans of many institutions have been challenged, supported or struck down in several Supreme Court cases. This work first reviews and critiques research based on the concepts of affirmative action in higher education. It then moves on to develop an independent research proposal to answer questions regarding affirmative action and finally it reviews and discusses the breadth and depth of Grutter V Bollinger and Gratz V Bollinger and how they impact affirmative action and business.

Outline:
Abstract
Research Proposal: Affirmative Action and Race Relations
Review of Literature
Research Question
Hypothesis
Sample
Method
Expected Findings
References

From the Paper
"It would seem that there have been as many challenges and debates with regard to affirmative action policies as there have been research studies on the subject of its effectiveness and therefore validity. Regardless of this fact there are also a significant number of researchers who seek to answer what they view as more important questions regarding affirmative action, not the least of which is does it help or hurt the minority population, or the majority population and has it been at all effective in eliminating discrimination in the broader society, institutionally or in business. The following research proposal will attempt to answer an enduring question associated with some of the broader questions of affirmative action namely; Is affirmative action policy implementation destructive to race relations in higher education and/or business? This question seems to be at the root of research, debate and conflict associated with affirmative action, and must garner some sort of answer for the development of a future for race relations and the role of affirmative action in decision making for admissions or hiring."

Tags:race relations, education, constitutional law, disenfranchisement