Abstract
This paper looks at different theories of education to see which best explains the achievement gap. The paper decides that cultural discontinuity is the main theory explaining the achievement gap and explains why the other theories are not as good.

From the Paper
"The theory which best explains the achievement gap in education is cultural discontinuity. Cultural discontinuity argues that we cannot assign value judgements or measure different modes of communication against an Anglo middle class norm, because this is not representative of the student population as a whole anymore. We need to look at different modes of communication as culturally relative. There are differences in communication styles between students of color and the Anglo culture which are culturally based and just, presenting the Anglo culture in the schools leads to conflicts..."

Tags:education, achievement gap

Abstract
This paper examines how a great gap exists today between the academic achievements of white and Asian-Americans and the rest of the non-Asian minorities, which has been increasing steadily since the 1980s. The paper suggests the gap is a social construct created from the prejudice of the white majority and the unconscious and often paradoxical ways in which minorities inadvertently live up to their expected negative role. Other explanations for the achievement gap are discussed, but in the end, systemic prejudice mixed with the results of the "stereotype threat" are seen to explain the burgeoning divide between minorities and the majority.

From the Paper
"According to Steele's extensive research, constant exposure to negative stereotypes results in one of two different responses. The individual may go through a process called "disidentification" in which "To reduce this stress he may learn to care less about the situations and activities that bring it about -- to realign his self-regard so that it no longer depends on how he does in the situation... Pain is lessened by ceasing to identify with the part of life in which the pain occurs." (Steele, 1999, I) A more commonplace term for this process is tuning out -- for the student effectively tunes out not just negative stereotypical input, but also those parts of their life about which negative stereotypes may occur, such as the academic world. The other response is to gear up: to try doubly hard to overcome and disprove the stereotype. Most theorists would blame tuning out for the gap in achievement -- however, Steele suggests that gearing up may be equally to blame."

Tags:prejudice, stereotype, hispanics, blacks

Abstract
This paper discusses the achievement gap between African-American and Caucasian students as it relates to education. It discusses the gap from a historical and cultural perspective. It then explores the context of this issue as it relates to standards of education and analyzes the findings of several articles regarding the impact of this issue on pre-service teachers.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Context With Link To Standards Of Education
Summary And Analysis Of Several Articles
Impact Of This Issue Of Pre-Service Teachers

From the Paper
"The segregation of African American and Caucasian children prior to 1964 continues to have a profound effect on the achievement levels of students. In addition, there are issues of socioeconomic class that play a significant role in achievement levels. In recent years this gap has increased significantly as the disparities between the rich and the poor have also widened. Because there are such differences between the wealthy and the poor in this country there are also substantial differences in the standard of education from place to place. There have been various attempts over the years to close this gap. Under the Bush administration the No Child Left Behind Act was developed to address the Achievement gap. Since the implementation of this Act there has been a great deal of conflict concerning both its implementation and the impact that the act has actually had on the achievement gap as it relates to Black and White students. Setting specific standards as it relates to expectations for achievement and curriculum is critical to closing the achievement gap between black and white students."

Tags:socioeconomic, race, NCLB

Abstract
This paper discusses the myriad factors that may be contributing to the achievement gap between black and white children in America. The paper also looks at some positive signs regarding the educational future of black children and some possible solutions for closing the gap.

From the Paper
"As recently as 1998, the press was reporting that African Americans score lower than European Americans on vocabulary, reading, and math skills tests in general, as well as on standardized tests claiming to measure scholastic aptitude and intelligence. Although the gap had narrowed somewhat after 1970, the American black child still scored lower than whites, as much as 15 percent lower. Despite abundant speculation and a wealth of research, no one had yet come up with a "magic bullet" to put a stop to the disparity; in fact, research had shown that the problem was extremely difficult to overcome, despite integration (a fact for more than 40 years) and improvement in other socioeconomic factors. "It is true that the gap shrinks only a little when black and white children attend the same schools. It is also true that the gap shrinks only a little when black and white families have the same amount of schooling, the same income, and the same wealth". (Jencks and Phillips, 1998) The disparity is substantial, as revealed by grades. Researchers in Shaker Heights, Ohio, found that "black-white GPA gap equals roughly one letter grade. The mean GPA is in the neighborhood of C+ for blacks and B+ for whites". (Ferguson, 2001)"

Tags:enrollment, historical, mistreatment, marginality, attitudes, skills, middle-class, success

Abstract
The paper discusses how standardized testing, rigid curriculum design and poor representation amongst teachers and administrators of a diverse student population are responsible for the achievement gap in education today. The paper addresses the close correlations between poor academic opportunity and poor social and economic experiences throughout an individual's life, and highlights how education remains at the root of a continued struggle toward true and equal diversity.

Outline:
Introduction
Overview
Framework
Sociological Perspective
Economic Perspective
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Though Jim Crow laws and segregation-policies had been eliminated by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, in their place have emerged a wide range of symptoms indicating a deeply ingrained sickness of racism. To date, such symptoms persist in myriad incarnations, such as the continued debates over 'racial profiling' in law enforcement which unfairly target minority groups such as African Americans and Hispanics; in America's continually heated and vitriolic debates on Mexican immigration; in the period directly following September 11th in which Muslim and Arab Americans became the subject of intense legal scrutiny and discrimination; and in the more general occupational, residential and recreational gaps separating the hegemonic racial makeup from the countless minority and immigrant groups in America.
"This is an idea which is directly reinforced by the close correlation between poor academic opportunity and poor social experience throughout one's life. According to the Educational Equality Project, "one in nine black men between 20-34 are incarcerated; a black male is more likely to be in prison than to have a post-graduate degree. The achievement gap is not some irrelevant statistic, it is proof that our public education system is consistently failing our children and drastically reducing their chances to compete and succeed as adults." (EEP, 1) In the outcome, this fact indicates, minority groups are inherently more likely to fall into lives of disarray and social maladjustment because they are denied educational opportunities relative to their white counterparts."

Tags:curriculum, diversity, discrimination, standardization

Abstract
The paper argues that closing the achievement gap that exists will take an equitable allocation of funds and a supply of high-quality teachers that are good role models for African-American students. The paper discusses how to ensure that our teachers are quality individuals who understand the process of teaching as well as the methods that are currently available. The paper further addresses the need for students to be motivated to learn, for there to be higher expectations from teachers and students and for there to be less negative stereotyping by teachers. The paper asserts that if these factors are addressed effectively, a change can be initiated.

From the Paper
"There are a number of factors to be researched concerning the achievement gap between African American and Caucasian students. These factors include such things as resource allocation and how it affects those that receive less as compared to those that receive additional resources, how low teacher expectations can be effecting results from students who realize that the expectations are low (or high), academic stereotyping and the subliminal effects it is having on students, and last, but certainly not least, teacher quality or lack thereof. The educational environment in which the students find themselves is also perceived as an important factor in the level of success for many students.
"There have been a number of studies conducted during the last several decades that present various reasons for the achievement gap between black and white students, and a large number of decisions have been made using the data as presented by those studies. In the past the common perception may have been that certain students, or groups of students may have been less likely to achieve success due to their membership in that group. Stereotyping to that degree might even be a harbinger for the lack of success. A 2007 study found that "stereotype threat effects occur when members of a stigmatized group perform poorly on a task because they fear confirming a negative stereotype that is associated with their ingroup" (Spencer & Castano, 2007, p. 419). If members of a group feel that they are being looked down upon or castigated for being a part of that group, they may be acting out in the specific manner for which they are being looked down upon in the first place."

Tags:stereotyping, teachers, collaboration, motivation, role, models

Abstract
Addresses the gap in testing scores between minority and majority (white) students at a high school where the proportion of minority to majority students is 1:4. Proposes a number of different ideas to improve minority students' test scores, involving parents, teachers, administrators, and students in both academic and social initiatives.

Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that for many years there has been a considerable achievement gap in America. Most often this achievement gap is evident when comparing wealthy children to poor children. There are also achievement gaps along the lines of race and gender. The writer explores why these achievement gaps exist and the ways in which these gaps can be reduced. The writer also provides some facts concerning the types of achievement gaps that exist in America. The writer maintains that achievement gaps between white and black students begin in elementary school and exist throughout adulthood. The research suggests that such factors as poverty, under funding and racism play substantial roles in contributing to the achievement gap amongst American students.

Outline:
Introduction
Achievement Gap
Why Does an Achievement Gap Exist?
Poverty
Unequal Funding
Locus of Control
Acting White
Academic Disengagement
Reasons for Academic Disengagement
How to reduce the Achievement Gap
Adequate School Funding and School Choice
Better Trained and Better Paid Teachers
Detracking
Changing Perceptions
Discussion
Conclusion

From the Paper
"When schools do not have adequate funding they can not purchase enough books for every student, school equipment may be deteriorating and students may not have access to the technologies needed. A lack of these essential tools can make it difficult for students to thrive.
"In addition to adequate school funding, school choice may be needed in some districts. The issue of school choice is a controversial one but parents and students should not have to bear the cost of schools that are failing children and not providing them with the education needed to compete in the world. In a perfect world schools would get funding and well trained teachers but the reality is that in order to close the achievement gap some serious issues must be addressed and this may result in the temporary or permanent closing of underperforming or failing schools."

Tags:students, classes, standardized, tests, disparity

Abstract
This paper argues that the Brown vs. Board of Education, a Supreme Court decision mandating the integration of public schools with the purpose of promoting equality in education, and ultimately in society, has not yet achieved this ideal. The first part of this paper details how the achievement gap between different races can be seen in all levels of education, from primary to college levels. This section also looks at how this gap can be discerned in various areas from academic subjects like mathematics to extra curricular activities like SAT preparations. The next part of the paper then looks at the reasons why this achievement gap persists. Finally, the paper looks at various programs that are geared towards narrowing this gap. Though their successes remain limited, this paper argues that programs such as these are the only long-term solution to a problem as ingrained as the achievement gap in education.

From the Paper
"The scholastic achievement gap starts as early as pre-school. Data from the U.S. Department of Labor (cited in Jacobson 2001) shows that by kindergarten and first grade, children of African American, American Indian and Latino heritage exhibit lower levels of school awareness compared to white and Asian children of the same age. These tests measure factors such as the mastery of oral language, pre-mathematics and pre-reading skills. In addition, African American, American Indian and Latino children also who lower levels of general knowledge."

Tags:elementary, grades, vocabulary, knowledge, reading, skills

Abstract
This paper examines how, although it is desirable that the elementary classroom provide a unified approach and atmosphere for educating students, such unity is not always possible in today's diversified classroom. It looks at how the challenges that exist in a diversified classroom are myriad and how regardless of these challenges, it is important to work with the diverse population. The paper further examines the phenomenon of the "achievement gap," "acting white," and the potential effect of the teacher on what is presumed to be peer effects.

Outline:
The "Achievement Gap"
Acting White
Closing the Gap
Discussion and Conclusion

From the Paper
"According to Fryer and Levitt (2004) there is a gap between the test scores of white and black students, which widens as these students progress through elementary school and into later grades. This phenomenon exists even when socioeconomic factors, family structure, neighborhood elements, and school quality are accounted for (Fryer & Levitt, 2004, p. 65). In addition, while black students experiencing a widening gap as they progress through school, Hispanic children in the same environment tend to close the achievement gap when they mature, even when faced with "relative inexperience with the English language" (Fryer & Levitt, 2004, p. 65)."

Tags:children, black, white, socioeconomic