Abstract Transcendental idealism is founded on the concept of the a priori. Few claims in philosophical history have encouraged as wide and vigourous a debate as this one idea. The a priori nature of causality has been the most cited example, and this paper takes a view of the playing field. Not only is Kant's theory of causality explained with care, but the paper also investigates how Kant stands in reference to traditional ("dogmatic") metaphysics, notably that of Leibniz and also to his powerful contempary, David Hume; with whom Kant had one eye on when writing "The Critique".
From the Paper "Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" is largely a response to popular philosophy of the time. This is true of Leibniz (and Wolff?s) "dogmatic metaphysics", but also true of the psychological approach of the British empiricists. The most resolute of these, in Kant's mind, was David Hume, and Kant's response to Hume's treatment of causality is worthy of further examination."
Abstract This paper explores two possible ways of reaching the concept of the soul as a constituent or determiner of personal identity; a) as a result of empirical evidence, and b) as an assumption on which a theory of personal identity can be built. Both pose problems for the soul criterion of personal identity. Firstly, the paper argues that a posteriori concept of the soul is invariably tied to psycho-physical continuity, making the soul useless in determining identity beyond the scope of psychological and physical analyses of personal identity over time. Secondly, the paper suggests that an a priori definition of the soul constitutes ad hoc for the personal identity problem. Finally, the paper assesses whether a sensible view of the soul might be reached through the theory of subjective or "flexible" survival and the use of faith rather than logic.
Outline:
A Posteriori Soul
A Priori Soul
Desire and the Unobservable
Conclusions
From the Paper "The position against unobservability can be found through faith. Theists could make the claim that even though God cannot be observed through the senses, we can be aware of its existence and perhaps even its nature. Why, then, should we be oblivious to the nature of the soul, if it seems to have similar properties? This could be explained in terms of a "sixth sense", a kind of "soul detector". The claim of being able to perceive "auras" or "spirits" are not uncommon, albeit usually discredited. A case could be put forward in which "faith" is the inherent quality that human beings have to observe or experience otherwise unobservable things. This view, however, leans towards ad hoc. Nonetheless, the claim that belief in the soul criterion, as is the case with the belief in God, is a matter of faith and not of logic is widely held, particularly by religious people."
Abstract This paper discusses and compares analytic and synthetic judgement. The writer describes Kant's belief that all knowledge begins with experience, and that both experience and knowledge combine to give the reasons for why things happen. The paper draws comparisons between this idea and that of Hume, relating Hume's belief that events have explanations as to why they happen, an action brings a reaction.
From the Paper "Kant states how the reading of David Hume changes his thoughts and how it directed his investigations in the field of speculative philosophy. Kant wanted a "Copernican Revolution" in the response to Hume. "A recognition that the appearance of the external world depends in some measure upon the position and movement of its observers" is a response called "Copernican Revolution" (Kemerling 1). Kant wanted to move beyond the rationalist but he did not agree with the empiricists either."
This paper provides a first step in tackling the problem of the lack of visiblity of the SPCA (Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) in Cumberland County.
Abstract This marketing research study identifies appropriate target markets for future attempts to increase the visibility of the Society, by identifying specific categories of segmentation. Following careful review of secondary data sources obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau, careful "a priori" analysis is used to group residents into various segments. The paper claims that the market segments identified within it will result in a more efficient use of marketing resources for the Cumberland County SPCA. The paper concludes by recommending further research to determine the specific incorporation of these identified segments into a particular marketing strategy.
From the Paper "The Cumberland County Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) faces a great challenge in attempting to increase its visibility in the County. Currently, the SPCA does not have a viable or strong public presence. Linda Catalano, the Executive Director of the Cumberland County SPCA feels that the Society is "invisible", and that many residents are unaware of the work of the SPCA."
Abstract His ontological argument (a priori) and 'a posteriori demonstration of God's existence. Concept of perfection. Proofs of God's existence. Examining the reality of God. Descartes' belief in God the Giver and Creator. Free will of man as proof. Differences between existence of God & essence of God. Flaws in Descartes' reasoning.
From the Paper "Descartes and God
"More consequences for thought and action follow from the affirmation or denial of God than from answering any other basic question" (Hutchins 543). It is a fact that, long before Descartes, Man often thought of himself as the supreme being of the Universe, and still obedient to, or believing in, or trusting some superhuman Being called God.
While for millennia, philosophers have debated the idea or ideas of God, Descartes states that "ONE idea alone, becomes the basis for such an inference. He supplements his a priori or ontological argument with what he calls 'a posteriori demonstration of God's existence from the mere idea that God exists in us'" (Hutchins 554). God exists, Descartes writes, because "He possesses every sort of perfection…(and) existence is one of them" "
Abstract This paper looks at Millet's painting, which is more than the simple, decorative landscape it may appear to be on first examination. It shows that it is a work by an artist whose painting of rural and peasant scenes had made him successful.
From the Paper "The rough, contorted path, passing through a narrow gateway to the haven of the Priory which links earth to heaven can be seen as a representation of the path of the soul through earthly labors to ultimate salvation; it is also a powerful reminder of the earthy quality of ordinary peoples' lives in rural France, with the mud and stones standing for the material conditions of their lives in which they were trapped. There is thus a social criticism present in this work as well as a spiritual message. The domination of earth over sky in terms of the area of the painting it occupies would seem to underline this aspect of the painting. However the placing of the Priory and the relative brightness of the sky, the sense of space conveyed by the sea and sky in the upper portion of the painting, contrasting so sharply with the quite congested an claustrophobic atmosphere of the earthy lower portion, suggests strongly the presence of salvation and hope. In that sense the Priory stands for the enduring qualities of the human soul and its unquenchable potential for salvation. From bottom to top, the picture goes from dark to light, and from earth to heaven. It is, in the final analysis, a landscape of hope."
This paper is a literature review studying the relationship of heroin addicts and either their D (disorganized) type attachment, or factors that might be assumed to denote D type behaviors.
Abstract This paper examines dysfunctional attachment, especially the D (disorganized) form, as an a priori factor in the psychology of heroin addicts and as an impact on the therapeutic relationship. The author points out that Goodman and Hans (1999) investigated infants exposed to methadone in utero did not differ from comparison infants in indexes of proximity-seeking at reunion but did display higher scores on indexes of disorganized and avoidant behavior and lower scores on indexes of contact-maintaining behavior. The paper relates that because some people who can control their habit, indulging in heroin only on weekends, all addictions may not be allied to dysfunctional attachment patterns.
From the Paper "Carswell et al (2002) investigated a social control model for dealing with serious addiction in youthful abusers. They noted that some "argue that delinquency and substance abuse are learned behaviors produced by continued exposure to multiple risk factors associated with problems or deficits within the individual, family, peers, school, and community." Among these was conflict-ridden families, arguably resulting in dysfunctional attachment patterns. They investigated whether the standard protective factors-supportive parental relationships among them-were mitigating factors for both the dysfunctional behaviors and resulting abuse problems."
Tags:priori, therapeutic, studies, control, family
Abstract This paper discusses Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason," which is the great thinker's most critically acclaimed work. It presents Kant's numerous arguments in favor of the possibility of metaphysics and shows how he tried to establish a much-needed link between science and metaphysics. It also discusses how he tried to bridge the gap between reason and metaphysics with the help of priori and posteriori.
From the Paper "In the Critique, Kant invites science 'to undertake anew the most difficult of all its tasks, namely, that of self-knowledge, and to institute a tribunal which will assure to reason its lawful claims'. This tribunal is 'no other than the critique of pure reason' (Axi) and thus in the book Kant presented numerous arguments in favor of the possibility of metaphysics and tried to establish a much-needed link between science and metaphysics. Kant was fully aware of the shortcomings of both pure reason and pure metaphysics. He understood the problems posed by the two fields in exclusivity and hence tried to bridge the gap with the help of priori and posteriori. According to him we need a priori in order to move to posteriori. He feels that at some level all sciences require priori- i.e. a prior knowledge that mind just happens to possess and which happens to be true as well. The mind, Kant maintains, must be capable of holding true knowledge or generating it. For example it is important for it to know that night changes into day and day into night because of some heavenly changes. When it possesses this knowledge, it can move on to posterior to test the truth of it."
Abstract The paper discusses how the creed of apocalyptic spirituality is built on the idea that apocalypse is the final goal of God and how it is the ultimate vision of Christianity. The paper considers the ways in which it can be manifested and how it falls into two categories; priori and posteriori. The paper also examines some of the more famous apocalyptic thinkers such as Lactantius, Joachim of Fiore and Friar Girolamo Savonarola.
From the Paper "Joachim of Fiore was the pessimistic mystic of apocalyptic spirituality. He lived in Italy from 1135-1202 and was the founder of the monastic order of San Giovanni in Fiore. His followers were called Joachimites. Joachim of Fiore returned from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land a changed man. He became a hermit for a time and lived as a pessimistic wandering preacher. After some time he was embraced by Pope Lucius III and he became a prophet. Joachim of Fiore believed that he could read the true meaning of the Bible as others had never seen it. In this reading he saw that the apocalypse was actually coming quite soon. This is what differentiated him from the apocalyptic prophets before him. Joachim of Fiore warned his followers to prepare to be judged, because he saw the impending end about to come to fruition. "
Abstract This paper examines how, for the philosopher Kant, an understanding of knowledge is circumscribed by the limitations of sensory experience. It looks at how, in "The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals", he delineates an understanding of the law and duty, which has its source a priori and is necessarily uncontaminated by empirical volition and data. It also discusses how his moral philosophy insists that knowledge that is contingent of context and conditions is not the highest knowledge and, in fact, dilutes pure understanding. It shows how Kant explores the ramifications of his view of moral understanding in a rigorous analysis of the action of a priori, synthetic reason and shows how reason acts "in itself" to produce the groundwork for a metaphysics of morals.
Outline
Abstract
Contents
Introduction and Overview
Foreground: A general Overview of Some Essential Concepts
Reason
An Analysis of Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals
Bibliography
From the Paper "In the third section of the Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, Kant attempts to elucidate the difficulty of understanding freedom in a moral sense. His analysis differentiates the knowledge that can be obtained from the senses, through experience, from that which is valid through reason alone. This relates to the seminal element that runs like an intellectual current throughout his work, which is the distinction made between a contingent reality derived from sense experience and a reality or "understanding" that comes from an a priori synthetic reasoning."
Abstract This paper presents an overview of Locke's theories as outlined in his essay. His arguments against a priori knowledge and the effects of his ideas on scientific thought are discussed. Cross-cultural, psychological, sociological, and developmental examples Locke gives to back up his theories are presented.
From the Paper "?I deny not that there are natural tendencies imprinted on the minds of men; and that from the very first instances of sense and perception, there are some things that are grateful and others unwelcome to them...but this makes nothing for innate characters on the mind,? (An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, I, ii, 3). With his Essay, John Locke effectively set the stage for the acceptance and practice of empiricism and the scientific method. Distancing himself from rationalists stemming back from Plato, the English philosopher argued against deductive reasoning pointing to a priori knowledge. Locke asserts throughout the Essay that the mind at birth is a blank slate and that none of our ideas are imprinted by either divine or natural sources. There are no prefabricated principles extant in the mind. Indeed, human beings can feel hunger, thirst, and pain, but our ideas about the world are based directly on sensory experiences. Hence, empiricism was born. Locke's arguments prove in many ways superior to those positions he refutes, for induction from the actual to the speculative supersedes deduction from the abstract to the real. The first book of the Essay comprises several chapters devoted to the refutation of the ?received doctrine that men have native ideas, and original characters, stamped upon their minds,? (II, i, 1). Following this undermining of established philosophical principles, Locke proceeds to describe how the mind does obtain its knowledge of the world in Book 2: ?all ideas come from sensation or reflection,? (II, i, 2). Sensory data precedes the formulation of ideas; our ideas do not and should not create our conception of reality."
Tags: empiricism, deductive, reasoning, tabula rasa, perception, experience, mind, consciousness, born
From the Paper "Philosophy has always been fundamentally concerned with the nature of truth and one's knowledge of reality. Its central demand is the autonomy of the individual person, that is, thinking for oneself about life, knowledge, religion, truth and reality. However, throughout the many centuries of human existence, different philosophers have formulated distinct approaches and theories with regard to these expansive abstractions. One philosophical principle that has been fervently debated by great minds through the years is the notion of "a priori knowledge". A priori knowledge is that knowledge which is acquired by the mind or reasoning alone, without any specific basis in experience (Lacey 112-113). A comprehensive analysis of the discordant views of several modern philosophers, Descartes, Leibniz, Locke, Hume and Kant, can more fully..."
This paper discuses Kant's "Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals": ethics & morality are metaphysical in nature; ethics can be divided into empirical knowledge and a priori knowledge; compared to Aristotle and Hume.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 3 sources, 1983, $ 47.95
From the Paper "Immanuel Kant begins his work, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, by dividing human knowledge into three branches: logic; physics; and ethics.He further divides ethics (which relates indirectly to reason), into empirical knowledge, and a priori knowledge. With reference to ethical behavior, the first term applies to sensuous experience, and the second to some inborn intrinsic knowledge. By making these distinctions Kant immediately alerts the reader that he finds morality and ethics to be metaphysical in nature. In other words, he finds some human concepts are simply consistent within themselves and must be excepted as such. For Kant, then, ethics, and therefore reason, are part of the human condition and have certain qualities that are ... "
Abstract The paper looks at two works by Immanuel Kant: "Critique of Pure Reason" and "The Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics". The writer first defines the term category and takes a step-by-step look at the possible categories Kant uses in his discussions and their implications.
Table of Contents:
A Priori Intuition and Intuitive Knowledge
Space and Time
Experience
On Category
From the Paper "Kant refers to the categories either implicitly or explicitly in support of his theory of knowledge throughout much of his discussions in the Critique of Pure Reason and the Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics. To isolate the categories or the notion of category from the context of other central issues mentioned in these texts is a difficult task, particularly to one whose study of Kant has only very recently begun. However, such a task I have set myself to do. Drawing from several secondary sources and from the original texts previously mentioned, I shall try to make clear what Kant means by category and how this notion fits in with his overall theory of knowledge."
Abstract This paper shows how there is a marked similarity between Immanuel Kant's ideas of the empty universe and universal reason and the Buddhist idea of the universal mind. The writer explores these parallels, while considering the difference that exists between thought.
From the Paper "In his Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant argues that self-awareness is not possible without awareness of objects external to one's mind. And unless a being is aware of the self and of external objects as different from self, that being cannot grasp that its mental states are representations of something different from itself. Furthermore, if a being cannot make these fundamental distinctions between self and external objects, that being cannot form judgments about objects (Kant 59-60)."
